History of the Culinary Culture

Korea's culinary culture has been shaped by its natural environment. Korea is located in the mid-altitude of the Northern Hemisphere, and belongs to a cold-temperate zone. Korea is surrounded by water on three sides, where both cold and warm currents cross each other, thus making it an ideal location for many fish species. Although mountains account for 70 percent of the entire country, over 40 percent of them are just 200 to 300 meters high. In addition, the Korean Peninsula is blessed with an annual rainfall rate of 960 millimeters (1,150 mm in South Korea) which allows agriculture to flourish. Sufficient water resources provide ideal condition for the cultivation of a variety of vegetables.

The major rivers flowing from the eastern mountains to the west created plains optimal for rice farming. In Korea, 40 to 60 percent of the annual rainfall occurs during the summer season. Thus, summer was the busiest season in Korea during the past agrarian era, which was mostly centered around rice crops. In the areas where the climate was not suitable to produce rice, other grains were cultivated, and especially in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, bean was the major crop. As a result, bean has frequently been added to cooked items, or steamed rice, which is the staple food of Koreans. Beans are also used to make bean paste.

Seasonal changes produced different seasonal foods. Kimchi is the most representative type of Korea's preserved vegetable, while jeotgal is a well-preserved seafood sauce. Given the distinct climatic changes in Korea, the menu of the traditional Korea varies season to season.


From Ancient Times up to the Three Kingdoms Era

Although rice is the main crop in Korea, its agriculture began with the cultivation of Deccan grass, millet, and foxtail millet in the middle of the Neolithic Period (B.C. 4000- B.C. 3500). Bean and red-bean were added later. During the Bronze Age, rice was introduced from China. It was during the Iron Age which began in the fourth century B.C., however, that saw the development of agriculture with the use of ironware. By the first century B.C., the Three Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla all relied heavily on rice production. Soon thereafter, wheat was also introduced to the Korean Peninsula from China. Thus, the grains produced in the Three Kingdoms period consisted of rice, barley, foxtail millet, millet, wheat, African millet, Deccan grass, bean, and red-bean. Among these, rice, barley, and foxtail millet were the main crops.

The basic structure of the Korean diet thus took shape during this period. The three main grains of this period were used for both steaming to make bap (steamed white rice), and milling to make rice cakes. Of these, bap became the staple food because it was more convenient to prepare; rice cakes, on the other hand, were used as a ceremonial food.

Meanwhile, techniques to brew grain wine were also being advanced during ancient times, and bean pastes which relied on a similar method of fermentation, also became widely popular. The technique of fermenting foods as a method of preservation was also used at this time. Vegetables were fermented with salt or salt and alcohol, while salt was also used with fish and meats.

In addition, roasting, steaming, and seasoning also began to be employed. The basic menu consisted of bap, bean pastes, kimchi and jeotgal, as the main dishes and roasted, steamed or seasoned vegetables and meats as additional side dishes (banchan). This traditional pattern of table setting is still in use today. In addition, rice cakes continue to be loved as a ceremonial food. Along with the development of Korea's culinary culture, tableware was also varied and sophisticated, ranging from earthenware, bronze ware, brassware, glazed china, lacquer ware, glassware, to gold- and silver-plated ware.


Unified Silla and Goryeo

At the end of the seventh century, the Three Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla were integrated into the Unified Silla Kingdom (668-935). The unification of the Korean Peninsula in 668 by Silla brought about significant transformations in many areas during this period. The culinary culture of Silla was no exception.

Unified Silla was a Buddhist society and it enjoyed abundance of food-quality grains and vegetables. Tea was also produced during this period.

Established by the end of the 10th century, the Goryeo Dynasty also followed the tenets of Buddhism. As a result, the people of early Goryeo, like the Silla people before them, restrained from eating large quantities of meat. The Goryeo also stepped up its efforts to bring unused land under cultivation, raising grain production. The cooking techniques for rice cakes and confections were also upgraded and tea was a highly favored beverage. The rice cakes of Goryeo were of such high quality that one of variety, the bamseolgi was exported to China. As for the confectioneries, yumilgwa and dasik were popular and served with tea. These cakes and confectioneries are still loved today.

The cultivation of vegetables also advanced during this period. Vegetables were mostly preserved in water and salt. Kimchi, the most popular pickled dish during this period, was also the main source of vitamin C, particularly during the winter season when vegetables were scarce.

Tea, which had been grown since the Silla period, also became a popular beverage during Goryeo. The palace housed a tea room for preparing tea, where the famous jade-green celadon and lacquered ware was widely used. Special tea villages were also designed solely for the purpose of cultivating tea. As for alcoholic beverages, grain wines were developed from ancient times, and since the middle of Goryeo, distillation techniques were introduced from China.

In the early period of Goryeo, the consumption of meat was forbidden under the tenets of Buddhism. Later, however, with the decline of Buddhism during the late Goryeo and early Joseon period, meat was introduced again into the culinary culture of Korea. Seorya-myeokjeok and Seolleongtang are good examples of these new meat dishes. International trade was also vigorously promoted. Several inns were constructed in large scale for foreign traders, and great banquets frequently took place. By the end of the 11th century, public inns were set up in and around key port centers to foster trade. At the same time, a good number of people became engaged in alcohol production. In sum, the food industry made major strides under the Goryeo Dynasty, thereby advancing the culinary culture of Korea.



Joseon Dynasty

Korea's culinary culture was refined during the Joseon Dynasty period (1392-1910). In the early part of the Joseon Dynasty, agriculture books were also widely published. Moreover, research in the fields of astronomy and meteorology began to produce new equipment to observe the celestial bodies and the weather, which contributed to improvements in farm cultivation. Significant strides in medical research were also made and they focused on the salutary benefits of a balanced diet which included a combination of rice, beans, vegetables, fish and meat. The traditional dining table was classified into a three-cheop, a five-cheop, and a seven-cheop table, depending on the number of side dishes (banchan). On the table, food was arranged in order to promote a balanced nutrition.

Small amounts of medical herbs that were known to aid digestion were also sometimes added, particularly in the food of those who frequently suffered from indigestion. A variety of herbs were also mixed into water to make different kinds of healthful tea. These ingredients could be easily cultivated at home.

During the Joseon Dynasty when Confucianism gained a stronghold in society, the culinary culture of Koreans underwent some significant changes. Since food preparation had to be made for many members of the household of varying ages, special techniques were required to cook and manage these large quantities of food. Women, for the most part, took on this burden among themselves. Also, given the Confucian family-oriented world view, special rites and ceremonies were often performed for family members, both living and deceased, and ceremonial food had to be prepared. In the course of preparing these frequent banquets, the families of the Joseon period developed their own specialty foods according to regional and social standing. Variations in styles and preparation of these foods have certainly contributed to the variety of Korea's contemporary culinary culture.


Basic Sauces

The basic sauces of most Korean homes during the Joseon Dynasty were soy sauce, bean paste, barley paste, and red pepper paste. Soy sauce and bean paste were cured with soybean malts, barley paste with barley malts, and red pepper paste with red pepper powder and malts made of glutinous rice, bean, and rice. Since many Korean dishes are seasoned with these sauces, they are the key to what makes Korean food taste Korean. Soybeans are boiled in the early winter to make malt, which is then dried during the winter season. Between late February and early March, the malt is soaked in water and fermented for 60 to 100 days. Later, some portions of the malt are sterilized by heating and made into soy sauce; the remaining dregs become bean paste.

Baechu Kimchi (Korean Cabbage Kimchi) is the most common kind of Kimchi.

Kimchi Kimchi is a uniquely pungent mixture of fermented vegetables and its variations amounted to roughly 80 kinds of dishes during the Joseon period. For spring, summer, and fall consumption, kimchi was prepared in a small quantity, but for the winter months, large quantities were made so that it could be eaten over three or four months. The kimchi-curing for the winter season was called gimjang and was usually done in late November.

In ancient times, kimchi was made of greens, pickles and salt or a salt and alcohol mixture. By the end of Unified Silla and the beginning of Goryeo, sliced-radish kimchi pickled in brine became popular. Soon thereafter chili was introduced to Korea around 1500 and it was added to make kimchi as well. During the late Joseon era, powdered chili, together with jeotgal (fish or shellfish paste), became the favored ingredients in kimchi. In the southern regions, the jeotgal was made of anchovies, while in the northern regions, croaker and shrimp jeotgal were more popular. The climatic differences of each region affected the taste of kimchi as well. In warm places, jeotgal and chili powder were used in abundance so that kimchi could be prevented from going bad. On the other hand, kimchi made in colder areas was less salty and pungent. Today, many firms are mass-producing kimchi.


Ceremonial Food

During the Joseon period, ceremonies were an important part of every family household and as a consequence, special foods for those ceremonies were developed. In particular, on the occasions of marriage and Hwan-gap, a special table-setting was arranged, which featured a variety of foods stacked up to about 30 to 50 centimeters high in a shape of a big cylinder. It was a matter of course that long years of experience was needed to stack the products successfully. Of the many ceremonial dishes, rice cakes and confectionary were popular.

Rice cakes, or tteok, are made of rice, and beans, or other grains. In ancient times, rice cakes were eaten both during ordinary meals times and during ceremonial of ritual occasions. It was only later, after the Three Kingdoms period, that rice cakes became primarily associated with ceremonial foods. Thus, rice cakes boast of a long tradition in the Korean history. Being indigenous and widely favored, rice cakes have many varieties. Rice cakes fall into three categories by cooking methods; steamed, and then pounded, and fried. Most of them are made of rice, but other ingredients such as bean, red bean, chestnut, flowers, and herbs are also added to make variations of marvelous flavors, scents, and colors. The records of Joseon show as much as about 250 different types of rice cakes.

Traditional confectioneries are mostly made of wheat flour, honey, and oil. Since these ingredients were rare in Korea, the confectioneries were prepared only for parties and ceremonies. Some popular traditional Korean confectioneries include yakgwa, gangjeong, dasik, jeonggwa, yeotgangjeong, and gwapyeon.

Yakgwa is made of wheat flour kneaded with oil, honey, and alcohol. The batter is fried and then dipped into honey. Yakgwa comes in different sizes and shapes. It was often made in the shape of flower or fish, and during the Joseon period, some yakgwa were prepared as large as 7 centimeters wide and long and 3 centimeters thick. They were displayed in stacked form.

Gangjeong is made of glutinous rice flour mixed with alcohol. The batter is kneaded, divided, and then dried. The dried batter is fried and coated with honey.

Dasik (Powdered grains and pollen) is kneaded with honey and shaped into decorative molds. Beans, pine pollen, sesame, and rice are usually used.

Jeonggwa is made of ginseng, Chinese quince, ginger, lotus root, steamed rice, and jujube, which are boiled in honey.

Yeotgangjeong: Roasted beans or sesame is mixed with grain-glucose and then hardened.

Gwapyeon: The flesh of strawberries, wild berries, or cherries are smashed up and hardened in honey.





Table Manners and Table Settings

From ancient times, Koreans have used spoon and chopsticks as their eating utensils. The spoon was for scooping steamed rice, soup, and stew, and chopsticks were used to eat a variety of side dishes. Koreans are trained to use the spoon and the chopsticks correctly from childhood. Using both spoon and chopsticks at the same time in one hand is considered bad manners.

Meals were served on either high or low tables until the Goryeo Dynasty. However, during the Joseon Dynasty, the low table came to be predominantly used as the under-floor heating system (ondol) came into vogue. The tables were often beautifully shaped and decorated. During rituals and palace ceremonies, however, the high table continued to be used, preserving the ancient tradition. Nowadays, the seated dining table with chairs is becoming popular while many families still use low tables.


A Traditional Korean Meal

Bansang is the usual meal of steamed rice, soup, and side dishes.

Jangguksang is arranged with kimchi, cold greens, mixed vegetables, pan-fried dishes, confectionery, fruit, and fruit punch. This simple meal can be served as lunch as well.

For Juansang, alcoholic drinks (ju) and accompanying side dishes (an) are set on the table. The dishes vary depending on the kinds of liquor or wine.

Gyojasang is a large table prepared for banquets. Alcohol beverages and a large variety of side dishes, rice cakes, confectionaries, and fruit punch are all placed on the table. After the liquor is finished, noodle soup is served.


The Traditional Ceremonial Meal

Baegil (100th day after the birth of a baby): Steamed rice, brown seaweed soup, white rice cakes, rice cake balls.

Dol (first birthday): Steamed rice, brown seaweed soup, white rice cakes, rice cake balls, rice cakes of five different colors steamed on a layer of pine needles.

White rice cakes represent sacredness, rice cake balls, escape from a misfortune, and rice cakes of five different colors, the five elements and the five virtues.

Wedding: The families of the bride and bridegroom prepare special dishes to express their mutual happiness and congratulations. The food includes fruit, confectionaries, and rice cakes which are stacked 30 to 60 centimeters high. This kind of table-setting is called Gyobaesang.

Hwan-gap (60th birthday): Keunsang is also prepared to celebrate one's 60th birthday.