IntroductionIn Korea, as in China or Japan, calligraphy has long been considered an important form of art. Korean calligraphy derives from the written form of the Chinese language, in which each character is composed of a number of differently shaped strokes within an imaginary square and is intended to convey a specific meaning. Koreans have used Chinese characters for writing since around the second or third century A.D., although their own language is of an entirely different system. Even after the invention of the Korean alphabet
Han-geul in 1443, Chinese continued to be used as the official script until the late 19th century. Traditional Korean calligraphers wrote in Chinese rather than in Korean. Under the influence of Chinese culture, calligraphy was always closely connected with painting in Korea, and some believe that painting was influenced by calligraphy in terms of the vitality, rhythm, and economy of strokes. A calligraphic work would be hung on a wall like a painting and admired in the same way, each stroke being praised for its own attributes, the ink for its tone, and the whole composition
for its strength, individuality, vitality and so on. A piece of fine calligraphy
is not a symmetrical arrangement of conventional shape but, rather, something
like the coordinated movements of a skillfully choreographed dance-impulse,
movement, momentary poise, and the interplay of active forces combining to form
a balanced whole.
Technically speaking, the art of calligraphy depends on the skill and imagination
of the writer to give interesting shape to his brush strokes and to compose
beautiful structures from them. This is done without any retouching or shading
and, most important of all, with well-balanced spaces between strokes. Such
spacing is acquired only through years of practice and training. But dexterity
of brushwork and cultivation of aesthetic sensitivity do not constitute the
only elements essential to understanding the art of calligraphy. Among the classes
of old Korea, the art was regarded as a necessary process of mental discipline
for a cultured gentleman. The practical function of calligraphy as handwriting
or a means of communication was often overshadowed by the philosophical implications
attached to the act of executing it.
The fundamental inspiration of calligraphy, as in all other arts which flourished
in ancient Korea, is nature. Each stroke in a character, even each dot, suggests
the form of a natural object. Like the ancient Chinese masters, Korean calligraphers
recognized that, just as every twig of a living tree is alive, every tiny stroke
of a piece of fine calligraphy must be made to live. This is the very property
of calligraphy that distinguishes its strokes from those in a printed word.
Chinese ideograms have an abstract, pictorial quality which further adds to
the visual attraction of calligraphy by permitting a writer of accomplished
artistry to enjoy almost unlimited possibilities in expressing himself as would
a great painter in his paintings.
Like the tools of a traditional ink-and-brush painter, the tools of a calligrapher
are few: good ink, an ink stone, a good brush and good paper (some prefer silk).
These items were called affectionately the "four stationery treasures" (or sometimes
the four friends of a scholar. Great care was taken in selecting and maintaining
them because they often served as a measure of the owner's aesthetic taste and
eye for beauty.
Three Kingdoms Period
Most extant examples of calligraphy from the Three Kingdoms period are in the
form of stele inscriptions. These are valuable as historical materials; moreover,
the calligraphic style of the inscriptions provides important insights into
the literary trends of the period.
Through interaction with China, Goguryeo was the first of the Three Kingdoms
to develop a distinct culture. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Goguryeo kingdom
overthrew the Four Han commanderies that had been founded on the Korean Peninsula.
Goguryeo assimilated Chinese culture from the commanderies and developed into
a strong nation by around the 5th century. King Gwanggaeto's stele, erected
in A.D.414 in the old Goguryeo city of Chiban (presently in southern Manchuria)
testifies to the nation's power at that time. Standing 6.38 meters high, the
stele commemorates King Gwanggaeto (r. 391-413) who managed to significantly
expand Goguryeo territory. On the stele inscription, the Western Han's simplified
square style is used instead of the conventional script of the era. The alternating
composition and bold strokes attest to the vibrant and progressive spirit of
the Goguryeo people. There is also an inscription on the tomb of Moduru, a general
during the reign of King Gwanggaeto. Its inscription was made in the conventional
style with vibrant strokes. Another Goguryeo stele is found at Chungju in Chungcheongbuk-do
province. Erected in the late-5th century during the reign of King Jangsu, the
stone monument commemorates the acquisition of new territory under the Goguryeo
policy of southern expansion. Inscribed in the square printed style (
haeseo)
then popular in China, the calligraphy also bears faint traces of the simplified
square style (
yeseo).
Baekje established an elegant art tradition based on Goguryeo culture and agricultural
knowledge along with influence from China's Southern Dynasties. The confluence
of these cultural traditions can be seen on King Muryeong's tomb-stone in Gongju
and the Sataekjijeok stele erected in 654 in Buyeo. The former stands at the
tomb of King Muryeong (r. 501-523) and his queen. During the king's reign, the
Baekje kingdom had active cultural contact with China's Southern Dynasties.
The inscription on the tomb stones was done in a soft, elegant style. The exquisite
inscription on the Buyeo stele, on the other hand, commemorates the construction
of a Buddha hall and stupa by the government minister Sataekjijeok.
In the mid-6th century, Silla, centered around the area of Gyeongju, began to
expand as it gradually transformed from a tribal state to a nation. Numerous
steles provide evidence of this process. Early steles were roughly hewed from
stone, with awkward proportions and irregular inscriptions done in the archaic
style. By the reign of King Jinheung (r. 540-576), steles commemorating royal
tours were being erected in newly-acquired Silla territory. The inscriptions
on these newer steles show a more advanced writing style. Examples include Hamgyeongnam-do
province's Hwangchoryeong stele, the Maunnyeong stele and the stele on Mt. Bukhansan
in Seoul. The calligraphy on these memorials follows the conventional haeseo
(square printed style) of China's Southern Dynasties. In terms of construction,
the steles were made by cutting a slab of rock so that all six sides are completely
flat. A cap stone was used to cover the stele's top.
Unified Silla
As the heir to the classical culture of Silla as well as that of Baekje and
Goguryeo, Unified Silla established an international form of art that incorporated
elements introduced from Tang China. The square printed style (
haeseo),
chiefly modeled on Ou Yang-hsun's style, was introduced into the Korean Peninsula
where it enjoyed great popularity. This new calligraphy style appeared on stone
inscriptions ranging from royal tombs, grave stones, stupa steles, steles commemorating
statue construction, stone sutra inscriptions, bell inscriptions and sarira
container inscriptions. Wang Hsi-chih's running hand style (
haengseo)
was also popular at this time. The cursive or "grass style" (
choseo)
is also thought to have been in fashion.
Kim Saeng (711-?) is indisputably one of the most outstanding calligraphers
from this era. Instead of using the delicate and lovely styles popularized by
Wang Hsi-chih and Gu Yang-hsun, Kim developed a uniquely vibrant and fluid style
of his own. For this achievement, he is often lauded as one of the great calligraphy
masters of the East. Other famous Korean calligraphers from this time include
Choe Chi-won, with his gentle interpretation of Ou Yang-hsun's style, and the
monk Yeong-eop, who mastered Wang Hsi-chih's running-hand style.
Goryeo Period
During the Goryeo period, an elaborate, aristocratic style of art was developed
based on Unified Silla's Buddhist culture. In the early Goryeo period, the calligraphy
styles of Silla continued to be popular, but during the later period, Chinese
styles were introduced, leading to the development of new forms. Calligraphy
examples from this period come from epigraphic materials such as stupa steles
and tomb stones. These stone memorials, along with numerous copies of sutras,
allow researchers to understand the development of the period's calligraphy.
In addition to these sources, the wooden printing blocks for the
Tripitaka
Koreana and the world's first movable type have survived to the present,
providing scholars with ample knowledge of the period.
Among these materials, some of the best calligraphy examples are to be found
on stupa monuments. Commemorating the life of famous monks, these steles were
typically inscribed by famous calligraphers or men of letters. Based on the
square printed style (
haeseo) of the early Tang masters, the inscriptions
show much originality. Famous calligraphers of the period include Yi Hwan-chu
and An Min-hu (masters of the Ou Yang-hsun style), Jang Dan-yeol (master of
both Ou Yang-hsun and Yu Si-nan styles) and Yi Won-bu (master of Yu Si-nan style).
From around the mid-12th century, calligraphy based on the styles of the Tang
master An Chen-jing or the Northern Song master Su Shih began to appear in Korea,
particularly in the works of Yu Gong-gwon and Kim Won-bal. Following in the
footsteps of the Unified Silla Kingdom, the running hand style (
haengseo)
continued to be primarily based on the Wang Hsi-chih's style. The monk Tanyeon
(1069-1158), in particular, used Wang's style to develop a unique form of calligraphy
with remarkable elegance and refinement. As a result, he is often praised as
one of the great masters of the period.
After the late 13th century, a close political relationship developed between
Korea and Yuan China. During this time, the style of the famous Yuan calligrapher
Chao Meng-fu became highly popular. King Chungseon (r. 1308-1313) played an
active role in this trend. During his stay in Yenjing, he built a library for
scholars. He then invited Chao Meng-fu and other Yuan scholars along with Yi
Je-hyeon (1287-1367) and leading Goryeo scholars to the place. One member of
the Goryeo group, by the name of Yi Am (1297-1364), became famous for his calligraphy
done in the Chao Meng-fu style.
Joseon Period
During the early Joseon period, Goryeo culture and artistic styles continued
to exert a significant influence. Thus, Chao Meng-fu's style maintained its
popularity, becoming a favorite among early Joseon masters. Yi Yong (Prince
Anpyeong Daegun, 1418-1453), the third son of King Sejong, is one of the most
famous calligraphers of the Chao school. In 1447, he wrote his most representative
work,
Mong-yu-dowon-gi (A Dream Visit to Peach Blossom Land), with calligraphy
that is famous for its clarity and elegance. In addition to calligraphy, Yi
had a talent for painting and music, and played a key role in art circles of
the time. As a result, his calligraphy style had an extensive influence on both
contemporary and subsequent writers. After this, refinements were made in Chao
Meng-fu's style, as it gradually became deeply rooted in Joseon culture. From
the mid-16th century, another group of writers devoted themselves to Wang Hsi-chih's
style. This tradition was maintained by those connected with the royal house
along with a number of conservative figures.
After the Toyotomi Hideyoshi invasions (1592-1598), there was a renewed sense
of national independence. These ideological developments influenced the art
world, leading to the creation of a uniquely Joseon style. Calligraphy also
changed. By the early 17th century, a number of literati were already calling
for a return to classical forms such as Wang Hsi-chih's style. These new thinkers
criticized Chao Meng-fu's style of calligraphy as being concerned with only
external beauty without any real depth. Leading scholars of the era such as
Seong Su-chim (1493-1564) and Yi Hwang (1501-1570), by utilizing this classical
style in their works, provided impetus for change.
Han Ho (1544-1605), styled Seokbong, was one of the representative calligraphers
of this period. During the Japanese invasions, Seokbong was in charge of writing
diplomatic correspondence with Ming China. His excellent calligraphy won high
praise from the Chinese. Mastering Wang Hsi-chih's style, Seokbong developed
his own unique style that came to be associated with his name. Lavishly supported
by King Seonjo (r. 1568-1608), he wrote the Cheonjamun (Thousand Characters
Text) under royal order in 1583. Carved onto wooden printing blocks, the text
was published and distributed for use as a writing primer for children. Seokbong's
style, characterized by meticulous composition and strong brush strokes, agreed
well with Joseon's artistic sensibilities. Its influence extended to the royal
house, the literati and diplomatic scribes. In the end, Seokbong's popularity
encouraged the general movement (centered around Wang Hsi-chih) back to calligraphy
styles of China's Wei and Jin kingdoms.
On the other hand, the 16th century saw the appearance of numerous masters of
the cursive or grass style (
choseo). Representative figures include Kim
Gu, Kim In-hu, Hwang Gi-ro, Yang Sa-eon and Baek Gwang-hun. Each of these calligraphers
uniquely interpreted the
choseo style of China's Tang and Ming Dynasties.
Among these figures, Hwang Gi-ro and Yang Sa-eon (1517-1584) had a significant
influence on subsequent development of the
choseo style.
Prior to the 17th century, the practical
haeseo,
haengseo and
choseo styles were favored. The simplified square (
yeseo) or seal
character (
jeonseo) styles, primarily used for decoration or formal purposes,
had not developed significantly. However, there were a few calligraphers who
developed unique versions of these styles, such as Heo Mok (1595-1682), who
created a unique interpretation of seal characters, and Kim Su-jung (1624-1701),
who is famous for his works in the simplified square style.
With the normalization of relations between Qing China and Joseon at the end
of the 17th century, Joseon adopted classical calligraphy styles developed prior
to the Ming Dynasty. Yet by the late 18th century, Qing styles were gradually
introduced to Joseon where they served as a stimulus to Joseon calligraphy.
Yun Sun (1680-1741), the most representative calligrapher of this period, brought
together the best points of Korean and Chinese masters to create a diverse range
of styles. He was particularly adept at the Mei-fo style of Northern Song. His
disciple Yi Gwang-sa (1705-1777) set out to master the styles of China's Wei
and Jin kingdoms. Yi also tried his hand at other forms including the seal characters
(
jeonseo) and simplified square style (
yeseo) of the Qin and Han
Dynasties. A progressive artist, Yi is famous for his work Seogyeol in which
he gives calligraphy an academic basis. With his unique style, Yi also contributed
to the popularization of calligraphy.
|
Kim Jeong-hui (1768-1856). |
| Yi Yong (Prince Anpyeong
Daegun, 1418-1453). |
|
| Han Ho (1543-1605). |
|
Kim Saeng (711-?). |
During the reign of King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800), Joseon introduced from Qing
China a new stream of the Chinese classical culture. This "northern learning"
movement, centered around
Gyujanggak (the royal library), also introduced
philological and bibliographical studies. These new research techniques encouraged
the study of epigraphic materials, and resulted in diverse experimentation with
seal characters and the simplified square style calligraphy found on ancient
steles. Kim Jeong-hui (1786-1856) was one of the leading Korean figures in this
movement. A man of profound erudition and a highly refined aesthetic sense,
Kim was the greatest calligrapher of the period. Taking a deep interest in the
simplified square style of China's Han Dynasty, Kim developed a unique interpretation
of this form, which came to be known as the Chusa style. Subsequent calligraphers
admired Kim's innovative style, and it has been a major influence on the calligraphy
of modern-day Korea.
Modern Period
The sudden introduction of Western culture from the late 19th century brought
chaos to Korea's traditional value system. Art entered a period of crisis and
calligraphy went into decline. At this time, many conservative scholars followed
traditional Chinese styles, but some more internationally-oriented people used
styles similar to contemporary Chinese calligraphy. Some members of the reformist
faction adopted Japanese calligraphy styles's trend that became even more pronounced
during the Japanese occupation (1910-1945).
After liberation in 1945, there was a broad-based movement to restore traditional
cultural elements that had been wiped out by the Japanese. Efforts to revive
Korean calligraphy at this time achieved considerable success. In 1949, the
Daehan min-guk misul jeollamhoe (National Exhibition) was founded, and
a special section was devoted to calligraphy. The annual event played a central
role in the growth of Korean calligraphy. Recently, numerous calligraphy organizations
have been established. International exchanges have been brisk these years among
calligraphers of Korea, China, Japan and the Asian community in the United States
with their common art based on Chinese characters.
Korean Letters Calligraphy
Following the dissemination of Han-geul by King Sejong in 1446, the new phonetic
script was written in the xylographic style (
panbonche) and transcription
style (
seosache). The first wood block prints of Han-geul texts were
written in imitation of ancient seal script. The 1446 publication of
Hunminjeong-eum
(Correct Sounds to Instruct the People) used round strokes, but by the 1447
publication of
Yongbi-eocheon-ga and the 1448 publication of
Dongguk-jeong-un,
the strokes had become angular. In a sense, this process can be said to parallel
the change from seal characters to the simplified square style to render Chinese
characters. During the reign of King Sejo, a calligraphy style reminiscent of
the square printed style appeared. This style had an enormous influence on the
eventual development of the transcription style which appeared during the 19th
to 20th century. The transcription style, developed from letters and copied
stories written by ladies of the royal court, became the model for the so-called
gungche (palace style). In the xylographic style, Chinese characters were used
with
Han-geul. As a result, the
Han-geul syllables had to occupy
the same space as a Chinese character. In the court style, on the other hand,
only Han-geul was used. Thus, the right-hand side of the syllable could be emphasized,
and the shape of the leading consonant or silent sound distorted to fit the
dimensions of the syllable combination. Like in Chinese character calligraphy,
Han-geul calligraphers also developed standard, semi-cursive and cursive styles.
The
Han-geul calligraphy tradition was significantly undermined by the Japanese occupation, but after liberation, it was renewed to its former glory by schools and the steadfast efforts of calligraphers. Even today, many calligraphers are experimenting with new styles of
Han-geul in an attempt to further develop this important national heritage. In efforts to preserve and develop this artistic tradition, large institutions such as the National Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Arts and the Seoul Arts Center have major sections exclusively devoted to calligraphy.