Prehistoric Period
Early Chinese documents recorded the existence of three types of prehistoric
dwellings in Korea: pit houses, log houses and elevated houses. Only the remains
of pit houses have been identified through excavations in recent years, however.
Pit houses consisted of a 20-150cm deep pit and a superstructure of grass and
clay supported by a tripod-like frame made of timber to provide protection from
the wind and rain. Pit houses of the Neolithic period had circular or oval pits
about 5-6 meters in diameter with a hearth at the center. Most of the early
ones were located on hills. As these dwellings moved down nearer to rivers,
the pits became rectangular in shape as well as larger, with two separated hearths.
| | Prehistoric Settlement Site in Amsadong, Seoul, historical site no. 267 |
Log houses were built by laying logs horizontally, one on top of another. The
interstices between the logs were filled with clay to keep the wind out. Similar
houses are still found in mountainous areas such as Gangwon-do province.
Elevated houses, which probably originated in the southern regions, are believed
to have first been built as storage houses to store grains out of the reach
of animals and to keep them cool. This style still survives in the two-story
pavilions and lookout stands erected in melon patches and orchards around the
countryside.
Three Kingdoms Period | Janggunchong, the royal mausoleum of King Jangsu, Jilin Province, China ( Goguryeo Kingdom) |
| The Goguryeo Kingdom (37B.C.-A.D.668) was the first of the Korean kingdoms to
be exposed to Chinese Han culture. Chinese influence made a lasting impression,
as evidenced by the construction style of Goguryeo's palaces, temples and tombs. Melding Chinese elements with their original type of construction, the people of Goguryeo developed their own style. It was characterized by powerful lines and sturdy construction, necessitated by the rugged terrain and harsh climate of the country.
Patterned tiles and ornate bracket systems were already in use in many palaces in Pyongyang, the capital, and other town-fortresses in what now is Manchuria. |
The construction of Buddhist temples was enthusiastically undertaken after Buddhism
was introduced in 372 by way of northern China. A series of excavations in 1936-1938
unearthed the sites of several major temples near Pyongyang, including those
in Cheong-am-ri, Wono-ri and Sang-o-ri. The excavations disclosed that the temples
were built in a Goguryeo style known as "Three Halls-one Pagoda," with a hall
in the east, west and north, and an entrance gate in the south. In most cases,
the central pagodas had a octagonal plan. Palace buildings appear to have been
arranged in this way as well.
Murals in tombs dating from Goguryeo also reveal a great deal about the architecture
of that period as many of them depict buildings which have pillars with entasis.
Many have capitals on top of them. The murals reveal that the wooden bracket
structures and coloring on the timbers, all characteristic of later Korean structures,
were already in use at that time.
| Pagoda standing at Mireuksa Temple in Iksan City, Jeollabukdo, national treasure no. 11 (Baekje Kingdom) |
| Baekje was influenced by Goguryeo as well as by southern China. As it expanded
southward, moving its capital to Ungjin (currently Gongju) in A.D.475 and to
Sabi (currently Buyeo) in 538, its arts became richer and more refined than
that of Goguryeo. Also characteristic of Baekje architecture is its use of curvilinear
designs. Though no Baekje buildings are extant (in fact, no wooden structure
of any of the Three Kingdoms now remains) it is possible to deduce from Horyuji
temple in Japan, which Baekje architects and technicians helped to build, that
Baekje's architecture came into full bloom after the introduction of Buddhism
in 384. What remains in the building sites, patterned tiles and other relics,
as well as the stone pagodas that have survived the ravages of time, testifies
to the highly developed culture of Baekje. |
Many palaces are recorded as having been built in Baekje. Some traces of them
can be found at both
Busosanseong, the third palace of this kingdom,
and at the site of
Gungnamji pond, which is mentioned in the
Samguksagi
(History of the Three Kingdoms).
Gungnamji means "pond in the south of
the palace."
The site of
Mireuksa temple, the largest in Baekje, was excavated in
1980 at Iksan of Jeollabuk-do province. The excavation disclosed many hitherto
unknown facts about Baekje architecture. A stone pagoda at
Mireuksa temple
is one of two extant Baekje pagodas. It is also the largest as well as being
the oldest of all Korean pagodas.
Mireuksa temple had an unusual arrangement
of three pagodas erected in a straight line going from east to west, each with
a hall to its north. Each pagoda and hall appear to have been surrounded by
covered corridors, giving the appearance of three separate temples of a style
called "One Hall-one Pagoda." The pagoda at the center was found to have been
made of wood, while the other two were made of stone. The sites of a large main
hall and a middle gate were unearthed to the north and south of the wooden pagoda.
When the site of
Jeongnimsa temple was excavated in 1982, which had also
been the site of the other existing Baekje pagoda, the remains of a main hall
and a lecture hall arranged on the main axis one behind the other were unearthed
to the north of the pagoda. The remains of a middle gate, a main gate and a
pond arranged on the main axis, one in front of the other, were also discovered
to its south. It was found that the temple was surrounded by corridors from
the middle gate to the lecture hall. This One Hall-One Pagoda style was typical
of Baekje, as seen in the excavations of the temple site in Gunsu-ri and in
Geumgangsa temple in Buyeo in 1964. The building sites of
Geumgangsa
temple, however, were arranged on the main axis going from east to west
rather than from north to south.
Silla came under Buddhist influence after 527. Since its national territory
was separated from China by Goguryeo or Baekje, China's cultural influence was
much diluted. This probably accounts for the delay in its cultural development
compared to the other two kingdoms.
| Bunhwangsa Stone Pagoda, Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbukdo, national treasure no. 30 (Silla Kingdom) |
| One of the earliest Silla temples, Hwangnyongsa temple was systematically
excavated and studied in 1976, and found to have been of considerable magnitude.
It stood in a square walled area, the longest side of which was 288 meters.
The area enclosed by corridors alone was about 19,040 square meters. The Samgungnyusa
(Passed History of the Three Kingdoms) records that there was a nine-story wooden
pagoda built here in 645 that was about 80 meters high. A large image of Buddha
is also recorded to have been enshrined in the main hall with the stone pedestal
still remaining. Constructed in the middle of the sixth century, Hwangnyongsa
temple flourished for more than 680 years during which time the halls were
rearranged many times. In its prime, immediately before Silla's unification
of the peninsula in 668, it was arranged in the Three Halls-One Pagoda style,
quite unlike the One Hall-One Pagoda style of Baekje's Mireuksa temple. |
Another major Silla temple was
Bunhwangsa, on the site of which still
stands three stories of what is recorded to have been a nine-story pagoda. As
the remains show, the pagoda was made of stones cut to look like bricks. A set
of stone flagpole pillars in addition to other stone relics also remain.
The Unified Silla Period | Bulguksa temple, Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbukdo, UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site |
| Silla defeated Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668 to unify the Korean Peninsula
for the first time under what is known as the Unified Silla (668-935). Given
the spiritual role of Buddhism in helping to bring about the fall of the two
kingdoms, the religion flourished, and along with it, its architecture and art
forms. Many architectural masterpieces were created during this period, Bulguksa
temple and its grotto shrine, Seokguram, being the most representative
examples. The development of Buddhist architecture also brought with it the
development of other forms of architecture, including palatial and residential
types. An example of palace architecture of this period is Donggung palace,
in Gyeongju, where a garden pond called Anapji has been excavated and
restored. |
More than 50 major temples are mentioned in historical records. Ten of them,
including
Bulguksa temple, are still in operation, although their wooden
structures have been rebuilt. The most artistically constructed is
Bulguksa
temple, which was completed in 774, with Kim Dae-seong as the master architect.
Located on the western slope of Mt. Tohamsan, the temple sits on longitudinal
plateaus of both natural and dressed stones, each of which varies in size to
fit together beautifully. Stone railings run the length of the plateaus. There
once was a lotus pond in front of the temple, symbolically separating it from
the secular world. The temple proper is approached by two sets of staircases
called bridges. The bridges in the east lead to the
Dabotap and
Seokgatap
pagodas, and in
Daeungjeon, the main hall, the visitor will find an image
of the Sakyamuni Buddha. Those in the west lead to
Geungnakjeon, the
hall in which an image of Amita Buddha is housed.
Dabotap and
Seokgatap
are the two most beautiful and representative examples of Silla pagodas. The
two stone pagodas style was prevalent at the time, after replacing single wooden
pagodas.
The wooden structures now visible at Bulguksa were mostly constructed in the
latter part of the Joseon period (1392-1910), as the originals were destroyed
in the course of frequent foreign invasions.
Museoljeon, the lecture
hall;
Birojeon, the hall of Vairocana;
Gwaneumjeon, the hall of
the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, and the corridors were all restored in 1972.
Seokguram Grotto, a man-made shrine in Mt. Tohamsan behind
Bulguksa,
is the greatest artistic masterpiece of the grotto movement which ran across
the whole East Asia, originating in India. A perfect image of Buddha is enshrined
in it. An annex of
Bulguksa temple,
Seokguram Grotto was deliberately
located to look out over the East Sea. It has an anteroom connected by a small
passageway to a main rotunda. Although it is not a temple in the traditional
sense, it contains all of the elements and features generally found in the halls
that compose a temple. Eight guardians of Buddhism are carved in relief on the
walls of the antechamber; likewise, four Lokapalas are also carved in relief
on both sides of the door leading to the rotunda. The Sakyamuni Buddha is seated
at the center of the rotunda, and images of 11 bodhisattvas and 10 disciples
of Buddha are carved in relief along the wall. Statues of bodhisattvas are housed
in niches in the upper part of the wall under the domed ceiling, which is decorated
with relief work. The wooden super structure in front of the grotto was added
in 1964 when the grotto was repaired.
Silla's palace construction is best represented by
Donggung, the palace
of the crown prince. The site of the palace was excavated in 1976 to reveal
the location of a pavilion called
Imhaejeon and
Anapji pond.
Goryeo Dynasty | Muryangsujeon, the Amita Hall of Buseoksa temple, Andong, Gyeongsangbukdo province, national treasure no. 18 |
| The culture of the Goryeo Dynasty inherited Silla culture, including Buddhism.
Influenced by the architectural trends of Song (Sung) China, Goryeo in its early
years developed a unique architectural style featuring curved bracket arms on
top of columns called "column head bracketing." With brackets placed only on
the column heads, the framework was rather simple, and the ceiling was left
bare with no covering panels or canopies; the roofs were mostly gabled. Some
examples of this column-head styling include: Geungnakjeon, the Amita
Hall of Bongjeongsa temple; Muryangsujeon, the Amita Hall of Buseoksa
temple, both in Andong, Gyeongsangbuk-do province; Daeungjeon, the Sakyamuni
Hall of Sudeoksa temple in Yesan; Chungcheongnam-do province and the entrance
gate of the Gaeksa (Guest House) in Gangneung, Gangwon-do province. The
Amita Hall of Bongjeongsa is the oldest wooden structure extant in Korea. Dismantled
for renovation in 1971, it was determined at that time that Bongjeongsa had
been reconstructed in 1363. |
Another style involving multi-cluster brackets influenced by Yuan China emerged
after the mid-Goryeo period and continued into the Joseon period. With clusters
of brackets placed not only on the column heads but also on the horizontal beams
between columns, this style was much heavier in feel. A building thus constructed
was sturdier and had a more imposing appearance. The roof was usually hipped
and gabled and, unlike the column-head style, the ceiling was covered with panels,
creating a checkered appearance.
During this period, Buddhism became tinged with Taoism, shamanism and other
belief systems. The traditional styles of One Pagoda or Two Pagodas for a certain
number of halls disappeared from use as such shrines as
Chilseonggak
for the spirits of the Seven Stars, and
Sansin-gak for the
Sansin,
or Mountain Spirit, were added to temple grounds. The placement of structures
became more complicated with the introduction of geomancy into temple planning.
This was largely due to a highly esteemed monk named Doseon.
Some of the best temples of the period are Heungwangsa, Burilsa and Manboksa.
Though none have survived, the way in which they were arranged has become known
through extensive excavations of the temple sites.
Joseon Dynasty | Injeongjeon, Changdeokgung palace, Seoul, national treasure no. 255 |
| The Joseon Dynasty suppressed Buddhism in favor of Confucianism. Under such
circumstances, the construction of temples declined drastically, while the construction
of Confucian shrines and private and public Confucian academies flourished.
A simpler system of column-head bracketing was generally favored in the devout
Confucian society, though the multicluster bracket style was still used in some
buildings. Geungnakjeon of Muwisa temple, Guksajeon and Hasadang
of Songgwangsa temple and Haetalmun gate of Dogapsa temple are examples
of the column-head bracket style. The Namdaemun gate of Seoul, the Daeungjeon
hall of Bongjeongsa temple and the Namdaemun gate of Gaeseong represent the
multicluster bracket style of the early Joseon period. |
In the aftermath of a series of foreign invasions, a new architectural style
with wing-like brackets emerged during the mid-Joseon period. Simpler and more
economical than the column-head style, it was well-suited to the difficult financial
situation the nation was experiencing caused by repeated wars and conflicts.
However, palace buildings and important temple facilities continued to be built
with the more ornate multicluster brackets, as is evident in the Myeongjeongjeon
hall in
Changgyeong-gung palace, the
Geumganggyedan hall of Tongdosa
temple, the Palsangjeon of Beopjusa and the
Gakhwangjeon of Hwa-eomsa
temple. Public buildings built in the wing-like bracket style include the
Jeongjeon
hall and the
Yeongnyeongjeon hall of Jongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine.
Toward the end of the 17th century, the Silhak or Practical Learning school
of Confucianism came into being. It greatly influenced the arts, encouraged
scientific studies and inspired an awareness of nationalism throughout the 18th
century. As Western thought and culture surged into the country, architecture,
as well as other fields of art, underwent a period of decline, all of which
was characterized by redundancy and superfluous decoration. Exemplary structures
from this latter Joseon period include the Injeongjeon hall of
Changdeok-gung
palace, the
Junghwajeon hall of
Deoksugung palace and
Dongdaemun,
the East Gate of Seoul.
Joseon period town walls are best exemplified by ones constructed around Seoul
which were built in 1396, and rebuilt in 1422. The walls around Suwon were completed
in 1796. The Seoul City wall included four major gates at each compass point
and four smaller ones in between each of them.
Many Joseon palaces were destroyed during the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598.
Most of the wooden palace buildings now extant in Seoul were reconstructed during
the middle and late Joseon periods. The multicluster bracket style was used
in most of the major palace structures, the audience halls and entrance gates,
and the wing-like bracket style, in minor structures, such as houses and pavilions.
Few palace buildings were built in the column-head style.
The roofs of the palace gates are hipped while the roofs of the main structures
are hipped and gabled. Decorative ceramic figures in the shape of dragons and
other animal heads are at each end of the ridges and rows of
japsang,
which are clay figures derived from a popular Chinese story, line the sloping
ridges to guard against evil spirits.
The ceilings of the major buildings are finished with checkered panels or with
highly decorated canopies that hide the framework of the roofs. Brackets and
ceilings are colorfully painted, and the areas where the tie beams and pillars
meet are decorated with carved corbels.
Modern PeriodEvery new visitor to Seoul will recognize that the teeming capital city is a
fascinating showcase of architectural trends and styles. They represent not
only Korea's indigenous cultural background, but also imported designs, schemes
and techniques from different traditions and ages. The city's ever-changing
skyline speaks for the speed with which Korea has developed in recent decades,
as well as its struggle to accomplish modernization amid the tides of Western
culture and civilization. The city offers a kaleidoscopic view of the works
of innumerable architects and engineers from both ancient and modern periods.
Modern high rises stand side by side ancient royal palaces, private houses,
temples, shrines and gates.
| Myeongdong Cathedral, Seoul, historical site no. 258 |
| The impact of Western architecture began to hit Korea during the last decades
of the 19th century when Korea signed treaties with foreign governments. In
1900, a British architect, at the request of the ruling family of the Joseon
Dynasty, designed a royal residence in Renaissance style within Deoksugung
palace, which is located in downtown Seoul. The two-story stone edifice, which
was completed in 1909 and later had been used as the National Museum, was one
of many Western-style buildings erected by foreigners in Seoul and major provincial
cities around the turn of the century. Architecture was a segment of Korean
life that underwent the most obvious transformation during this period of political
turmoil, as foreign powers in Korea attempted to build new structures that would
fulfill both a practical and symbolic function. Buildings from that time include
the Gothic-style Myeongdong Cathedral (1898), the Renaissance-style Bank
of Korea headquarters (1912), the Seoul Railroad Station (1925), and the Seoul
City Hall (1925), the Romanesque-style Seoul Anglican Church (1916). |
Western-style buildings continued to emerge in Seoul, impressing its residents
with their novel appearances and unfamiliar conveniences, until the 1930s. Western
architects and engineers built many of them, especially churches and offices
for foreign legations, but the Japanese gradually took over the construction
as their political power increased. The Japanese put up a number of new buildings
for public offices, banks, schools and commercial buildings, mostly in classical
Western styles modified to suit their taste.
The late 1930s to the 1950s was a dark period in the history of modern architecture
in Korea. Japan was engaged in prolonged warfare and Koreans were suffering
from extreme economic deprivation and harsh political control as a result. Architectural
activity was virtually stagnant until after the Korean War.
In the early years of modern architecture's development, Koreans gained new
ideas and skills from Western architects and engineers while they worked on
important construction projects. Some young engineers were employed by the Japanese
government and a few were successful enough to open their own firms later on.
Among these early pioneers were Pak Gil-yong, who designed the
Hwasin Department
Store building, and Pak Dong-jin, who designed the main building of Korea University.
These architects, who were active in the early 1930s, are two of the most important
figures in the history of modern Korean architecture as they were the first
Korean designers of famous structures about whom there are some records. Traditionally,
Korean architecture relied upon the system of apprenticeship. Likewise, carpenters
and masons were trained under master technicians. Formal education in Western
architectural concepts and engineering was first introduced to Korea in 1916.
Contemporary ArchitectureKorean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean
War reconstruction efforts, with the return of two ambitious young architects
of great talent from overseas - Kim Jung-eop from France and Kim Su-geun from
Japan. The office-residence of the French Embassy in Seoul by Kim Jung-eop,
and the Liberty Center by Kim Su-geun, both constructed in the early 1960s,
were a refreshing addition to Seoul's architectural environment. Both artists
were influenced by the brutalism of Le Corbusier, but their different approaches
have contributed greatly to the development of Korean architecture and have
been a point of continuing academic debate.
Some structures of special note in Seoul include Kim Jung-eop's Samil Building,
significant because it introduced new technology in the 1970s; Eom Deok-mun's
Sejong Center for the Performing Arts; Pak Chun-myeong's 63-story
Daehan Life
Insurance Building; and Kim Su-geun's
Gyeongdong Presbyterian Church
and the Olympic Stadium, showing the influence of the lines of Joseon ceramics.
| Sejong Center for the Performing Arts, Seoul |
After the era of Kim Su-geun and Kim Jung-eop, there came an age of experimentation
and diversity in Korean architecture. Some of the most notable examples are
Kim Seok-chul's Seoul Arts Center, Kim Won's
Gugakdang and Yun Seung-jun's
High Court Complex, Hwang Il-in's City Airport Terminal and Cho Sung-ryong's
Athletes Apartments at the Olympic Village.
In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide
variation of styles in its architectural landscape due, in large part, to the
opening up of the market to foreign architects. Moreover, forced to keep abreast
with international trends, Koreans have been coming up with ways to combine
the traditional Korean sense of aesthetics and beauty with the international
tastes and the functional demands of contemporary life.
One of the greatest tasks of the Korean architectural community is to protect
the country's great architectural legacy by achieving a harmonious relationship
between the ancient styles and modern structures.