In Korea, the status of folk paintings as part of traditional art was obscure up until the 20th century. Folk painting, or "minhwa," which is not unique to Korea, is typically understood to fall under folk studies rather than art history. Yet, there is a great difference in opinion among Korean scholars concerning the position of folk art in the traditional art world, as well as the scope and definition of the term. In the 1960s, a pioneering Korean scholar by the name of Jo Ja-yong collected folk art works and conducted excavations. Beginning with the "Tiger Exhibition" in 1969, special exhibitions of folk art were held on a regular basis. Around this time, information on folk art began to appear in publications, creating popular interest in the subject.
Since folk paintings are generally ordinary paintings made for a practical purpose, typically no mention is made of the artist's name. At first glance, the paintings seem crude. Yet, they vividly portray the simple beauty of the common people, and express a faith filled with secular aspirations and optimism. With their humor and variegated colors, they capture the honest and natural aesthetic of the Korean people.
Since folk paintings are created for a practical purpose, few old examples remain. Yet, folk paintings have a diverse range of subjects, are colorful, concise in expression and treat familiar themes. Notably, since the 1960s, folk painting has begun to influence modern art circles.
Folk paintings can be classified, according to content, into a few or as many as 20 or 30 different styles. Distinguishable from general landscape paintings,
minhwa landscapes include the typical
Eight Scenic Views of the Hwiao and Hwiang Rivers (a theme from China) and Korean landscapes. One can also find folk paintings created to decorate the interiors of rooms. These often depict the flower and bird motif, peonies, tiger-hunting scenes, comical magpie and tiger scenes and genre pictures of farmers working. Other pictures depict scholarly implements or contain inspirational verses _ clear demonstration of the respect for scholarship found in Confucian countries such as Korea.
Flower and Bird MotifPaintings of flowers and birds, along with depictions of landscapes and people,
developed early within the general painting tradition of Northeast Asia. Indeed,
paintings of the flowers and birds motif are the most common decorative folk
paintings among those that remain. These works were sought after since they
were most suitable for interior decorating. Such paintings, with their depictions
of gorgeous blossoms and pairs of beautiful birds, symbolized the love between
husband and wife and the desire for abundant offspring. They were generally
kept in the bridal chamber or the bedroom where the wife and children slept.
Paintings of PeoniesAs a symbol of wealth, the peony, with its splendid blossoms and wide, smiling
leaves, has been adored by the people of Northeast Asia. During the late Joseon
period, artists such as Heo Yu made black-ink painting of peonies. In folk paintings,
on the other hand, blue and red ink was used to paint peonies jutting forth
from rocky crags. These paintings are classified according to their size, which
varied from small works to others that were more than nine meters long and were
hung in the palace.
Scholarly ImplementsDepictions of scholarly implements, known as
chaekgeori or
chaekgado,
are important as a uniquely Korean theme that is rarely seen in other countries.
These paintings, which often covered the folding screens of the palace, incorporated
the Western techniques of perspective and shading. The pictures typically show
unusually large shelves of books and scrolls along with decorative pottery and
metal bowls. Government painters (particularly Yi Hyeong-nok) are especially
famous for paintings of this theme. Pictures of this type are diverse and include
depictions of tableware or books and just scholarly implements without the accompanying
shelves. Symbolically, these paintings reflect the honored position of scholarship
in Confucian societies.
Calligraphy PaintingsIn these paintings, each character of a classical Chinese phrase extolling Confucian
virtues such as filial piety, loyalty, etiquette or humility, is decorated with
designs and pictures. The motifs within each character give hints to its significance,
thus this style of painting is used for purposes of edification. As with other
folk arts of the period, one rarely comes across two calligraphy paintings that
are alike. Thus, this artistic form demonstrates extensive experimentation,
imagination and colorful techniques of expression.
Tiger Hunting PaintingsPaintings of hunting scenes have been around for a long time. Due to the large
number of folk paintings of this type, hunting scenes are often thought of as
a subject matter belonging exclusively to the
minhwa style. However as
with other types of folk paintings, tiger hunting scenes were first painted
by professional painters. These thrilling depictions of large groups of hunters
dressed in the attire of Manchurian nomads, are generally used to decorate military
housing and installations. They are also used, by the common people, to ward
off evil spirits.
Korean Landscape PaintingsLandscape painting occupies the highest position among the painting styles of Northeast Asia. Landscape was inspired by the idea of portraying beautiful scenery,
majestic mountains and other lovely scenes from nature. Although it is often
compared with Western landscape, Eastern landscape painting, having begun several
centuries earlier, is clearly distinguishable. Gradually developed out of Northeast
Asians' unique view of nature, Eastern landscape painting eventually surpassed
the painting of people or flowers and bird motifs, to become the chief artistic
form.
| A folk painting of a tiger and magpie. | | Flowers and birds. | | Cranes and pine tree |
The beginning of Korean landscape art can be seen on the wall paintings of Goguryeo
tombs. In the Tomb of the Dancers, there is a painting of a hunting scene. This
excellent piece of the 5th to 6th century, showing hunting and dancing, captures
the vibrant, optimistic spirit of the Goguryeo people. The fresco also depicts
numerous other people in twisting valleys. In the Gangseo great tumulus, amateurish
texture strokes are used to depict mountains. Although it is not a painting,
Baekje tiles bearing "mountain and river" motifs demonstrate an improvement
in terms of the use of space in landscape composition. Since there are no extant
Silla landscape paintings, we do not know exactly what they may have looked
like, but it can be assumed that they underwent considerable development along
with other Silla art forms, and the same can be said of Goryeo.
Realistic LandscapesThe realistic landscape style, known in Korean as "
silgyeong sansu" or
"
jin-gyeong sansu," does not simply represent an attempt to create photo-realistic
reproductions of actual Korean landscapes. For in this style of painting, not
only the subject matter but even the artistic techniques are different. While
painting their own native landscapes, Korean artists created unique illustrative
techniques for depicting mountain landscapes, which look quite different from
those of the main-stream idealistic style.
Korean painters are generally classified as either professional painters working
for the government's Office of Paintings or literati who painted as a hobby.
These two types of painters played complementary roles in the development of
Korean art. Literati artists at times displayed crude technique, but played
a positive role in the introduction and popularization of new styles from China.
The Toyotomi Hideyoshi invasions (1592-98) and the Manchu invasion of 1636 led
to a period of introspection. The national awakening that was born out of this
period appeared throughout Korea, affecting its society, economy and culture.
In this sense, these changes can be compared to the renaissance that the West
underwent from the late-14th to the early-15th centuries.
This Korean renaissance also occurred in the realm of painting, for it was during
this era that genre paintings became popular. In addition to depicting high-ranking
officials, these paintings took the daily lives of farmers, artisans and merchants
as their main subject matter. These paintings, which would have previously been
unthinkable, have today become invaluable as historical materials. Looking at
these paintings, scholars can get a vivid glimpse of the vibrant atmosphere
of the times and learn much that has not been passed down in the texts of the
period. In addition to genre works, realistic landscape painting was also popular
at this time. The elegant landscape style of this period is often referred to
as the most characteristically Korean art style. Fortunately, many paintings
from this period still exist today. Just as
kimchi is the representative
Korean food, realistic landscapes along with genre paintings are artistic styles
that exhibit the true Korean character.
The Gyeomjae SchoolThe government official Jeong Seon (1676-1759, styled Gyeomjae) developed a
unique landscape style which served as a model for Korean painters. Clearly
distinguishable from Chinese landscape, this new style, which came to be known
as the Gyeomjae school, had a deep impact on literati painters of the period.
Although to a lesser extent, Jeong Seon's influence was also felt among government
artists.
Kim Eung-hwan (1742-1789), who is thought to have been Kim Hong-do's teacher,
demonstrated composition and brush style similar to those of Jeong Seon in his
work Mt. Geumgangsan and his album of
Mt. Geumgangsan paintings. Kim
Hong-do (1745-1806), in particular, developed the style, establishing a distinctive
form for Korean landscape. This style's influence can also be seen in Mt. Dobongsan
by Kim Seok-sin (1758-?), Pyohunsa Temple by Choe Buk (1712-1786) the paintings
of Kim Yu-seong (1725-?), Jo Jeong-gyu (1791-?), Yu Suk (1827-1873), and Eom
Chi-uk, which resemble those of Kim Hong-do.
Under Jeong Seon's influence, literati painters also began to develop a slightly
different painting style. Although few in number, the realistic landscape paintings
of Sim Sa-jeong (1707-1769) bear traces of Jeong Seon's influence. Other masters
of realistic landscape created a distinctive style based on the Southern school.
Examples include the "Sea and Mountains" album and the more than 10-meter-long
painting of the Han-gang river by Jeong Su-yeong (1743-1831), "A Trip to Songdo"
by Gang Se-hwang (1713-1791), and the paintings of Yi In-sang (1710-1760) and
Kim Yun-gyeom (1711-1775).
In the mid-19th century, Kim Jeong-hui (1786-1856) developed new artistic style
and theory that signified the end of the realistic landscape; yet its traces
can still be detected in the landscapes of Byeon Gwan-sik (1899-1976) and Yi
Sang-beom (1897-1972).
The period from 1700 to 1850 was the heyday of realistic painting. Preceded
by the mid-Joseon period (16th century) with its emphasis on Neo-Confucian thought,
the 17th century in China was marked by the transition from the Ming Dynasty
to the Qing dynasty established by the Jurchen people of Manchuria. Koreans
were greatly confused by these events, yet, on the other hand, they felt a great
sense of pride as the true successors of Chinese culture. It is thus natural
that Koreans, at precisely this time, began to look to their own landscape for
subject matter and started to paint human figures wearing Korean instead of
Chinese clothing. Both genre paintings and realistic landscape paintings appeared
precisely from this background.
This new movement was not limited to painting. For calligraphy, crafts, sculpture
and ceramics, the late-Joseon period was a "golden age" during which Korean
art developed its most distinctive form.
Folk
painting comprises the so-called "functional" pictures widely used by commoners
in old Korea to decorate their homes or to express their wishes for a long,
happy life. Folk paintings, normally unsigned, often depict the same motifs
as those of the so-called "orthodox" paintings, including landscapes, flowers
and birds, but abound with humor and simple, innocent ideas about life and the
world.
Ancient Korean folk paintings present the age-old customs of the Korean nation.
Their repeated themes represent the unique lifestyle of the Korean people, their
dreams, wishes and artistic imagination. Although folk painting, typified by
its simple compositions of stylized motifs and bright primary colors, is usually
considered a low form of art, it does not necessarily mean that all paintings
in this genre are technically inferior to those categorized as standard paintings.
Folk painting actually includes a wide variety of paintings ranging from those
by professional painters at the royal court to those by wandering monks and
unknown amateur artists. Some pieces demonstrate marvelous artistry, but some
are considerably less skilled and sophisticated. The earliest examples of Korean
folk painting, or minhwa, date from prehistoric times.
Picture
and patterns in folk style are found in artifacts from all periods, including
Neolithic rock carvings, early bronze articles, the murals and bricks in the
tombs of the Goguryeo period (37 B.C-A.D.668), and handicraft objects from the
Goryeo (918-1392) and the Joseon period (1392-1910). It may be said that folk
painting has its roots in animal patterns on primitive rock carvings, the four
Taoist guardians and immortals in tomb murals, pictures of the ten longevity
symbols, hunting scenes and bricks ornamented with landscape designs.
Folk
paintings were produced by artists who obviously belonged to a low social class
in traditional Korea. But their paintings were used by people of all social
strata, from the royal household and temples down to the farmers in remote villages.
The paintings were needed for rites in various religious denominations like
shamanism, Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, and for decoration of public facilities
and private homes. They were intended mainly to stand for the common wishes
of the public to repel evil spirits and to invoke good fortune, or to depict
daily customs and moral concepts.
Consequently, folk paintings may be divided largely into two categories: religious
paintings and nonreligious paintings. Religious paintings depict shamanist,
Taoist and Buddhist themes as well as Confucian precepts for ancestor worship
and moral discipline. Nonreligious paintings include genre pictures, portraits,
illustrations of ancient episodes, documentary pictures, maps and astronomical
charts. Folk paintings may be classified into the following categories by theme:
1. Tao-shamanist paintings
Longevity
symbols: Pictures of the ten longevity symbols figure most prominently among
folk paintings of this category. The ten longevity symbols, including the sun,
clouds, mountains, water, rocks, pine trees, cranes, deer, turtles and the elixir
of immortality, are often presented all together in a single picture. Also representing
the predominant wishes for a long life are pictures of pine trees and cranes,
or flocks of deer. It is of special note that the royal throne had a picture
of the sun and the moon rising over a mountain of five peaks as a backdrop.
Directional
guardians and the 12 zodiac symbols: Ancient folk paintings often depict
the five directional spirits and the animal gods symbolizing the 12 zodiac signs
as an expression of the desire to disperse evil spirits and invoke happiness.
The five directional spirits are the blue dragon of the west, the white tiger
of the east, the red peacock of the south, the black turtle-snake of the north
and the yellow emperor of the center. As time passed, the red peacock was substituted
with a phoenix or a mythical animal called the kirin, and the black turtle-snake
with a turtle. The 12 zodiacal signs are represented by the mouse, ox, tiger,
rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig.
Tiger:
The tiger was among the most popular motifs in Korean folk paintings. Originating
probably from the mythical "white tiger" as the guardian spirits of the east,
the tiger was often personified in Korean folklore. A notable characteristic
of the tiger as featured in Korean folk tradition is that it is seldom portrayed
as a ferocious beast but as a friendly animal, sometimes even funny and stupid.
The tiger appears as a docile companion and messenger of the mountain spirit
in many folk paintings. It often appears with a magpie in a pine tree, a rooster
or a lion. The magpie in Korean folklore is an auspicious bird believed to bring
good news.
Immortals: As symbols of the Taoist ideal of harmony with nature as a
way to achieve eternal life, immortals have been important motifs in the Korean
folk tradition over the centuries. Immortals, often portrayed as hermits in
the mountains, were also believed to help the mortals to live happily, content
with good health, wealth and many children.
The mountain spirit and dragon king: The popular mountain spirit and
the dragon king motifs have their origins in two famous figures in Korean history,
Dangun and Munmu. Dangun is the progenitor of the Korean people who is said
to have turned into a mountain spirit in old age; King Munmu of the Silla Kingdom
is said to have become the dragon king after death, and his remains were buried
in the East Sea in accordance with his will. The mountain spirit is portrayed
in folk paintings as a benevolent old man with a white beard, accompanied by
a tiger messenger. The dragon king is usually depicted as a mighty animal flying
amidst the clouds over a sea of high waves. The pictures of the mountain spirit
and the dragon king motifs are housed at shrines in the mountains or by the
sea as the guardians of peace and prosperity of the nation. Also appearing frequently
in ancient folk paintings are various other Taoist or shamanist deities as
well as famous kings, generals, ministers or their wives.
2.Buddhist paintings
Buddhist temples and hermitages across the country are rich archives of folk
paintings, ranging from large icons for ritual use to illustrations for sutras
and anecdotes about famous monks and their portraits. These temple paintings
are noted for their simple compositions and bright colors.
3. Confucian paintingsConfucianism, based on the teachings of Confucius and other sages, has developed in Korea as an important intellectual and moral belief system. It also incorporated the nation's unique shaman and Taoist concepts of ancestor worship and respect for nature. Folk paintings in this category, included character designs of the popular themes of loyalty and filial piety, pictures depicting the life stories of renowned scholars, and a carp jumping up from the river to transform into a dragon, symbolizing the widespread aspiration for distinguished academic achievement and a successful career in officialdom.
| This character design can be classified as Confucian painting. |
4. Decorative paintingsA
great majority of ancient folk paintings handed down to the present were used
for decorative purposes. These paintings generally repeat popular motifs with
relatively poor techniques, but attest to the nation's religious tradition harmonizing
various faiths such as shamanism, Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Ancient
Korean folk paintings have the following characteristics: First, the folk paintings
show an unequivocal yearning for happiness. They stand for the universal desire
to chase away evil spirits and to enjoy a long life blessed with good health,
affluence and high social position.
Second, folk paintings attest to the honesty and simplicity of the Korean people. The
paintings are unrefined, sometimes even childish and crude. Yet they demonstrate
the nature of the Korean people, prone to simplicity and unpretentiousness.
Third, folk paintings show the deep love Korean's have for nature, humankind
and the deities. They are full of humanity, peace and warmth, which can seldom
be found in orthodox paintings.
Fourth, the folk paintings, with their bold compositions, dynamic brushwork
and intense colors, display the indomitable will and courage of an agrarian
society braving class warfare and foreign invasions.
Fifth, the folk paintings abound with humor and satire. They manifest the considerable
mental strength of the Korean people who are able to wisely surmount difficulties.
Pains and sorrows are sublimated into joys and happiness with rich humor and
satire.
Sixth, Korean folk paintings have a unique style which was derived from the
indigenous artistic flair of the Korean people.