Overview Prehistoric Period Three Kingdoms Period The Unified Silla Period

Goryeo Dynasty Joseon Dynasty Modern Period Contemporary Architecture

Overview

Art produced by the Korean people traditionally has shared aesthetic concepts, motifs, techniques and forms with those of their neighboring countries, China and Japan. Yet despite its many similarities, the art of Korea has developed a distinctive style of its own. Korean art has seldom displayed the grandeur and aloofness of the Chinese nor the decorative sophistication of the Japanese. In terms of technical perfection and precision, Korean artists have been compared unfavorably with their immediate neighbors, but the strength of Korean art rests in its simplicity and spontaneity. The architecture of Korea provides an excellent example of these traits. In addition to Buddhism, which was the main inspiration for many of the nation's architectural feats, the Chinese philosophies of eum (yin in Chinese) and yang, geomancy, Taoism and Confucianism also influenced Korean architecture. Koreans easily integrated the philosophical and religious principles of these teachings into their own work and applied their own interpretation of them into their own architectural plans and lay-out.

Nature has always been regarded as an element of utmost importance in Korean architecture. Numerous Buddhist temples scattered across the country attest to Korea's outstanding tradition of Buddhist art. They were frequently located in only those mountains famed for their scenic beauty. What is unusual about ancient Korean architecture is that it never attempted to resist or compete with the natural environment. It unanimously attempted to harmonize its structures with the natural surroundings. In the popular scheme for temple buildings in ancient Korea, sanctuaries, chapels and lecture halls were mostly arranged in a compound at the foot of a mountain or in a valley in such a way that they were practically hidden by the trees and shrubs. Conspicuousness and ostentatious display were traditionally avoided in Korean architecture.

In selecting the site for a building of any function, whether a private dwelling or a public facility, such as a palace or a temple, Koreans tended to attach special meaning to the natural surroundings. They never considered a place good enough for a building of any type unless it commanded an appropriate view of mountains and water. This pursuit of constant contact with nature was not based only on aesthetics. The principles of geomancy were based on the idea that for humankind to achieve its proper unfolding, both intellectually and emotionally, it needed the support of nature. Geomantic principles were thus applied in selecting dwelling sites for both the living and the dead. A structure was invariably positioned to face a stream with a mountainous area at its back side. Ideally, the mountain had to have "wings" at both ends so that it could embrace the structure which, in keeping with eum-yang considerations, had to have a stream flowing in front. Efforts were made to avoid having man-made construction disrupt this natural contour of the terrain.

Traditional Korean architecture was seldom inclined toward ostentatiousness in scale or ornamentation. Rooms were relatively small in size and simply decorated. The lack of inner space was made up in the outer courts. The exterior spaces were regarded as being more important than the interior. This is because Korean buildings were usually composed of many smaller integrated structures that were connected by courtyards and gates. Korean architects also favored the natural patterns of wood grains, just as potters were concerned with bringing out the inherent or natural characteristics of the clay. Typical of this long-cultivated preference for simplicity in decoration was the sarangchae (master's salon) which was commonly found in the house of a Confucian scholar-bureaucrat during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). Situated in the outer quarter of the house, a cultured gentleman of respectable demeanor was never supposed to be superfluous in decorating this room. A few pieces of wooden furniture of simple design would suffice as it was mainly used for reading and for scholarly pursuits. His taste for simplicity would often be emphasized by a small landscape painting rendered in ink and some pieces of pottery.

Prehistoric Period

Early Chinese documents recorded the existence of three types of prehistoric dwellings in Korea: pit houses, log houses and elevated houses. Only the remains of pit houses have been identified through excavations in recent years, however. Pit houses consisted of a 20-150cm deep pit and a superstructure of grass and clay supported by a tripod-like frame made of timber to provide protection from the wind and rain. Pit houses of the Neolithic period had circular or oval pits about 5-6 meters in diameter with a hearth at the center. Most of the early ones were located on hills. As these dwellings moved down nearer to rivers, the pits became rectangular in shape as well as larger, with two separated hearths.


Log houses were built by laying logs horizontally, one on top of another. The interstices between the logs were filled with clay to keep the wind out. Similar houses are still found in mountainous areas such as Gangwon-do province.

Elevated houses, which probably originated in the southern regions, are believed to have first been built as storage houses to store grains out of the reach of animals and to keep them cool. This style still survives in the two-story pavilions and lookout stands erected in melon patches and orchards around the countryside.



Three Kingdoms Period

Janggunchong, the royal mausoleum of King Jangsu, Jilin Province, China ( Goguryeo Kingdom)

The Goguryeo Kingdom (37B.C.-A.D.668) was the first of the Korean kingdoms to be exposed to Chinese Han culture. Chinese influence made a lasting impression, as evidenced by the construction style of Goguryeo's palaces, temples and tombs. Melding Chinese elements with their original type of construction, the people of Goguryeo developed their own style. It was characterized by powerful lines and sturdy construction, necessitated by the rugged terrain and harsh climate of the country. Patterned tiles and ornate bracket systems were already in use in many palaces in Pyongyang, the capital, and other town-fortresses in what now is Manchuria.

The construction of Buddhist temples was enthusiastically undertaken after Buddhism was introduced in 372 by way of northern China. A series of excavations in 1936-1938 unearthed the sites of several major temples near Pyongyang, including those in Cheong-am-ri, Wono-ri and Sang-o-ri. The excavations disclosed that the temples were built in a Goguryeo style known as "Three Halls-one Pagoda," with a hall in the east, west and north, and an entrance gate in the south. In most cases, the central pagodas had a octagonal plan. Palace buildings appear to have been arranged in this way as well.

Murals in tombs dating from Goguryeo also reveal a great deal about the architecture of that period as many of them depict buildings which have pillars with entasis. Many have capitals on top of them. The murals reveal that the wooden bracket structures and coloring on the timbers, all characteristic of later Korean structures, were already in use at that time.

Pagoda standing at Mireuksa Temple in Iksan City, Jeollabukdo, national treasure no. 11 (Baekje Kingdom)

Baekje was influenced by Goguryeo as well as by southern China. As it expanded southward, moving its capital to Ungjin (currently Gongju) in A.D.475 and to Sabi (currently Buyeo) in 538, its arts became richer and more refined than that of Goguryeo. Also characteristic of Baekje architecture is its use of curvilinear designs. Though no Baekje buildings are extant (in fact, no wooden structure of any of the Three Kingdoms now remains) it is possible to deduce from Horyuji temple in Japan, which Baekje architects and technicians helped to build, that Baekje's architecture came into full bloom after the introduction of Buddhism in 384. What remains in the building sites, patterned tiles and other relics, as well as the stone pagodas that have survived the ravages of time, testifies to the highly developed culture of Baekje.

Many palaces are recorded as having been built in Baekje. Some traces of them can be found at both Busosanseong, the third palace of this kingdom, and at the site of Gungnamji pond, which is mentioned in the Samguksagi (History of the Three Kingdoms). Gungnamji means "pond in the south of the palace."

The site of Mireuksa temple, the largest in Baekje, was excavated in 1980 at Iksan of Jeollabuk-do province. The excavation disclosed many hitherto unknown facts about Baekje architecture. A stone pagoda at Mireuksa temple is one of two extant Baekje pagodas. It is also the largest as well as being the oldest of all Korean pagodas. Mireuksa temple had an unusual arrangement of three pagodas erected in a straight line going from east to west, each with a hall to its north. Each pagoda and hall appear to have been surrounded by covered corridors, giving the appearance of three separate temples of a style called "One Hall-one Pagoda." The pagoda at the center was found to have been made of wood, while the other two were made of stone. The sites of a large main hall and a middle gate were unearthed to the north and south of the wooden pagoda.

When the site of Jeongnimsa temple was excavated in 1982, which had also been the site of the other existing Baekje pagoda, the remains of a main hall and a lecture hall arranged on the main axis one behind the other were unearthed to the north of the pagoda. The remains of a middle gate, a main gate and a pond arranged on the main axis, one in front of the other, were also discovered to its south. It was found that the temple was surrounded by corridors from the middle gate to the lecture hall. This One Hall-One Pagoda style was typical of Baekje, as seen in the excavations of the temple site in Gunsu-ri and in Geumgangsa temple in Buyeo in 1964. The building sites of Geumgangsa temple, however, were arranged on the main axis going from east to west rather than from north to south.

Silla came under Buddhist influence after 527. Since its national territory was separated from China by Goguryeo or Baekje, China's cultural influence was much diluted. This probably accounts for the delay in its cultural development compared to the other two kingdoms.

Bunhwangsa Stone Pagoda, Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbukdo, national treasure no. 30 (Silla Kingdom)

One of the earliest Silla temples, Hwangnyongsa temple was systematically excavated and studied in 1976, and found to have been of considerable magnitude. It stood in a square walled area, the longest side of which was 288 meters. The area enclosed by corridors alone was about 19,040 square meters. The Samgungnyusa (Passed History of the Three Kingdoms) records that there was a nine-story wooden pagoda built here in 645 that was about 80 meters high. A large image of Buddha is also recorded to have been enshrined in the main hall with the stone pedestal still remaining. Constructed in the middle of the sixth century, Hwangnyongsa temple flourished for more than 680 years during which time the halls were rearranged many times. In its prime, immediately before Silla's unification of the peninsula in 668, it was arranged in the Three Halls-One Pagoda style, quite unlike the One Hall-One Pagoda style of Baekje's Mireuksa temple.

Another major Silla temple was Bunhwangsa, on the site of which still stands three stories of what is recorded to have been a nine-story pagoda. As the remains show, the pagoda was made of stones cut to look like bricks. A set of stone flagpole pillars in addition to other stone relics also remain.



The Unified Silla Period

Bulguksa temple, Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbukdo, UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site

Silla defeated Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668 to unify the Korean Peninsula for the first time under what is known as the Unified Silla (668-935). Given the spiritual role of Buddhism in helping to bring about the fall of the two kingdoms, the religion flourished, and along with it, its architecture and art forms. Many architectural masterpieces were created during this period, Bulguksa temple and its grotto shrine, Seokguram, being the most representative examples. The development of Buddhist architecture also brought with it the development of other forms of architecture, including palatial and residential types. An example of palace architecture of this period is Donggung palace, in Gyeongju, where a garden pond called Anapji has been excavated and restored.

More than 50 major temples are mentioned in historical records. Ten of them, including Bulguksa temple, are still in operation, although their wooden structures have been rebuilt. The most artistically constructed is Bulguksa temple, which was completed in 774, with Kim Dae-seong as the master architect. Located on the western slope of Mt. Tohamsan, the temple sits on longitudinal plateaus of both natural and dressed stones, each of which varies in size to fit together beautifully. Stone railings run the length of the plateaus. There once was a lotus pond in front of the temple, symbolically separating it from the secular world. The temple proper is approached by two sets of staircases called bridges. The bridges in the east lead to the Dabotap and Seokgatap pagodas, and in Daeungjeon, the main hall, the visitor will find an image of the Sakyamuni Buddha. Those in the west lead to Geungnakjeon, the hall in which an image of Amita Buddha is housed. Dabotap and Seokgatap are the two most beautiful and representative examples of Silla pagodas. The two stone pagodas style was prevalent at the time, after replacing single wooden pagodas.

The wooden structures now visible at Bulguksa were mostly constructed in the latter part of the Joseon period (1392-1910), as the originals were destroyed in the course of frequent foreign invasions. Museoljeon, the lecture hall; Birojeon, the hall of Vairocana; Gwaneumjeon, the hall of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, and the corridors were all restored in 1972.

Seokguram Grotto, a man-made shrine in Mt. Tohamsan behind Bulguksa, is the greatest artistic masterpiece of the grotto movement which ran across the whole East Asia, originating in India. A perfect image of Buddha is enshrined in it. An annex of Bulguksa temple, Seokguram Grotto was deliberately located to look out over the East Sea. It has an anteroom connected by a small passageway to a main rotunda. Although it is not a temple in the traditional sense, it contains all of the elements and features generally found in the halls that compose a temple. Eight guardians of Buddhism are carved in relief on the walls of the antechamber; likewise, four Lokapalas are also carved in relief on both sides of the door leading to the rotunda. The Sakyamuni Buddha is seated at the center of the rotunda, and images of 11 bodhisattvas and 10 disciples of Buddha are carved in relief along the wall. Statues of bodhisattvas are housed in niches in the upper part of the wall under the domed ceiling, which is decorated with relief work. The wooden super structure in front of the grotto was added in 1964 when the grotto was repaired.

Silla's palace construction is best represented by Donggung, the palace of the crown prince. The site of the palace was excavated in 1976 to reveal the location of a pavilion called Imhaejeon and Anapji pond.



Goryeo Dynasty

Muryangsujeon, the Amita Hall of Buseoksa temple, Andong, Gyeongsangbukdo province, national treasure no. 18

The culture of the Goryeo Dynasty inherited Silla culture, including Buddhism. Influenced by the architectural trends of Song (Sung) China, Goryeo in its early years developed a unique architectural style featuring curved bracket arms on top of columns called "column head bracketing." With brackets placed only on the column heads, the framework was rather simple, and the ceiling was left bare with no covering panels or canopies; the roofs were mostly gabled. Some examples of this column-head styling include: Geungnakjeon, the Amita Hall of Bongjeongsa temple; Muryangsujeon, the Amita Hall of Buseoksa temple, both in Andong, Gyeongsangbuk-do province; Daeungjeon, the Sakyamuni Hall of Sudeoksa temple in Yesan; Chungcheongnam-do province and the entrance gate of the Gaeksa (Guest House) in Gangneung, Gangwon-do province. The Amita Hall of Bongjeongsa is the oldest wooden structure extant in Korea. Dismantled for renovation in 1971, it was determined at that time that Bongjeongsa had been reconstructed in 1363.

Another style involving multi-cluster brackets influenced by Yuan China emerged after the mid-Goryeo period and continued into the Joseon period. With clusters of brackets placed not only on the column heads but also on the horizontal beams between columns, this style was much heavier in feel. A building thus constructed was sturdier and had a more imposing appearance. The roof was usually hipped and gabled and, unlike the column-head style, the ceiling was covered with panels, creating a checkered appearance.

During this period, Buddhism became tinged with Taoism, shamanism and other belief systems. The traditional styles of One Pagoda or Two Pagodas for a certain number of halls disappeared from use as such shrines as Chilseonggak for the spirits of the Seven Stars, and Sansin-gak for the Sansin, or Mountain Spirit, were added to temple grounds. The placement of structures became more complicated with the introduction of geomancy into temple planning. This was largely due to a highly esteemed monk named Doseon.

Some of the best temples of the period are Heungwangsa, Burilsa and Manboksa. Though none have survived, the way in which they were arranged has become known through extensive excavations of the temple sites.



Joseon Dynasty

Injeongjeon, Changdeokgung palace, Seoul, national treasure no. 255

The Joseon Dynasty suppressed Buddhism in favor of Confucianism. Under such circumstances, the construction of temples declined drastically, while the construction of Confucian shrines and private and public Confucian academies flourished. A simpler system of column-head bracketing was generally favored in the devout Confucian society, though the multicluster bracket style was still used in some buildings. Geungnakjeon of Muwisa temple, Guksajeon and Hasadang of Songgwangsa temple and Haetalmun gate of Dogapsa temple are examples of the column-head bracket style. The Namdaemun gate of Seoul, the Daeungjeon hall of Bongjeongsa temple and the Namdaemun gate of Gaeseong represent the multicluster bracket style of the early Joseon period.

In the aftermath of a series of foreign invasions, a new architectural style with wing-like brackets emerged during the mid-Joseon period. Simpler and more economical than the column-head style, it was well-suited to the difficult financial situation the nation was experiencing caused by repeated wars and conflicts. However, palace buildings and important temple facilities continued to be built with the more ornate multicluster brackets, as is evident in the Myeongjeongjeon hall in Changgyeong-gung palace, the Geumganggyedan hall of Tongdosa temple, the Palsangjeon of Beopjusa and the Gakhwangjeon of Hwa-eomsa temple. Public buildings built in the wing-like bracket style include the Jeongjeon hall and the Yeongnyeongjeon hall of Jongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine.

Toward the end of the 17th century, the Silhak or Practical Learning school of Confucianism came into being. It greatly influenced the arts, encouraged scientific studies and inspired an awareness of nationalism throughout the 18th century. As Western thought and culture surged into the country, architecture, as well as other fields of art, underwent a period of decline, all of which was characterized by redundancy and superfluous decoration. Exemplary structures from this latter Joseon period include the Injeongjeon hall of Changdeok-gung palace, the Junghwajeon hall of Deoksugung palace and Dongdaemun, the East Gate of Seoul.

Joseon period town walls are best exemplified by ones constructed around Seoul which were built in 1396, and rebuilt in 1422. The walls around Suwon were completed in 1796. The Seoul City wall included four major gates at each compass point and four smaller ones in between each of them.

Many Joseon palaces were destroyed during the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598. Most of the wooden palace buildings now extant in Seoul were reconstructed during the middle and late Joseon periods. The multicluster bracket style was used in most of the major palace structures, the audience halls and entrance gates, and the wing-like bracket style, in minor structures, such as houses and pavilions. Few palace buildings were built in the column-head style.

The roofs of the palace gates are hipped while the roofs of the main structures are hipped and gabled. Decorative ceramic figures in the shape of dragons and other animal heads are at each end of the ridges and rows of japsang, which are clay figures derived from a popular Chinese story, line the sloping ridges to guard against evil spirits.

The ceilings of the major buildings are finished with checkered panels or with highly decorated canopies that hide the framework of the roofs. Brackets and ceilings are colorfully painted, and the areas where the tie beams and pillars meet are decorated with carved corbels.



Modern Period

Every new visitor to Seoul will recognize that the teeming capital city is a fascinating showcase of architectural trends and styles. They represent not only Korea's indigenous cultural background, but also imported designs, schemes and techniques from different traditions and ages. The city's ever-changing skyline speaks for the speed with which Korea has developed in recent decades, as well as its struggle to accomplish modernization amid the tides of Western culture and civilization. The city offers a kaleidoscopic view of the works of innumerable architects and engineers from both ancient and modern periods. Modern high rises stand side by side ancient royal palaces, private houses, temples, shrines and gates.

Myeongdong Cathedral, Seoul, historical site no. 258

The impact of Western architecture began to hit Korea during the last decades of the 19th century when Korea signed treaties with foreign governments. In 1900, a British architect, at the request of the ruling family of the Joseon Dynasty, designed a royal residence in Renaissance style within Deoksugung palace, which is located in downtown Seoul. The two-story stone edifice, which was completed in 1909 and later had been used as the National Museum, was one of many Western-style buildings erected by foreigners in Seoul and major provincial cities around the turn of the century. Architecture was a segment of Korean life that underwent the most obvious transformation during this period of political turmoil, as foreign powers in Korea attempted to build new structures that would fulfill both a practical and symbolic function. Buildings from that time include the Gothic-style Myeongdong Cathedral (1898), the Renaissance-style Bank of Korea headquarters (1912), the Seoul Railroad Station (1925), and the Seoul City Hall (1925), the Romanesque-style Seoul Anglican Church (1916).

Western-style buildings continued to emerge in Seoul, impressing its residents with their novel appearances and unfamiliar conveniences, until the 1930s. Western architects and engineers built many of them, especially churches and offices for foreign legations, but the Japanese gradually took over the construction as their political power increased. The Japanese put up a number of new buildings for public offices, banks, schools and commercial buildings, mostly in classical Western styles modified to suit their taste.

The late 1930s to the 1950s was a dark period in the history of modern architecture in Korea. Japan was engaged in prolonged warfare and Koreans were suffering from extreme economic deprivation and harsh political control as a result. Architectural activity was virtually stagnant until after the Korean War.

In the early years of modern architecture's development, Koreans gained new ideas and skills from Western architects and engineers while they worked on important construction projects. Some young engineers were employed by the Japanese government and a few were successful enough to open their own firms later on. Among these early pioneers were Pak Gil-yong, who designed the Hwasin Department Store building, and Pak Dong-jin, who designed the main building of Korea University. These architects, who were active in the early 1930s, are two of the most important figures in the history of modern Korean architecture as they were the first Korean designers of famous structures about whom there are some records. Traditionally, Korean architecture relied upon the system of apprenticeship. Likewise, carpenters and masons were trained under master technicians. Formal education in Western architectural concepts and engineering was first introduced to Korea in 1916.



Contemporary Architecture

Korean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean War reconstruction efforts, with the return of two ambitious young architects of great talent from overseas - Kim Jung-eop from France and Kim Su-geun from Japan. The office-residence of the French Embassy in Seoul by Kim Jung-eop, and the Liberty Center by Kim Su-geun, both constructed in the early 1960s, were a refreshing addition to Seoul's architectural environment. Both artists were influenced by the brutalism of Le Corbusier, but their different approaches have contributed greatly to the development of Korean architecture and have been a point of continuing academic debate.

Some structures of special note in Seoul include Kim Jung-eop's Samil Building, significant because it introduced new technology in the 1970s; Eom Deok-mun's Sejong Center for the Performing Arts; Pak Chun-myeong's 63-story Daehan Life Insurance Building; and Kim Su-geun's Gyeongdong Presbyterian Church and the Olympic Stadium, showing the influence of the lines of Joseon ceramics.


After the era of Kim Su-geun and Kim Jung-eop, there came an age of experimentation and diversity in Korean architecture. Some of the most notable examples are Kim Seok-chul's Seoul Arts Center, Kim Won's Gugakdang and Yun Seung-jun's High Court Complex, Hwang Il-in's City Airport Terminal and Cho Sung-ryong's Athletes Apartments at the Olympic Village.

In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape due, in large part, to the opening up of the market to foreign architects. Moreover, forced to keep abreast with international trends, Koreans have been coming up with ways to combine the traditional Korean sense of aesthetics and beauty with the international tastes and the functional demands of contemporary life.

One of the greatest tasks of the Korean architectural community is to protect the country's great architectural legacy by achieving a harmonious relationship between the ancient styles and modern structures.