Goryeo Dynasty
Silla was torn to pieces by rebel leaders
such as Gyeon Hwon who proclaimed the Latter Baekje (Hubaekje) state
in Jeonju in 900, and Gung Ye who proclaimed the Latter Goguryeo (Hugoguryeo)
state, the following year at Gaeseong. Wang Geon, the last rebel leader,
the son of a gentry family, became the first minister of Gung Ye. Overthrowing
Gung Ye for misdemeanor and misrule in 918, he sought and received the
support of landlords and merchants whose economic as well as political
power overwhelmed the Silla government.
Wang Geon easily raided the Latter Baekje in 934. Wang Geon accepted
the abdication of King Gyeongsun of Silla in 935. The following year
he conquered Latter Baekje and unified the Korean Peninsula. |
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The Goryeo Dynasty (11th century) |
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Wang Geon was at first content to leave provincial magnates undisturbed. He
was particularly careful to placate the Silla aristocracy. He gave former King
Gyeongsun the highest post in his government, and even married a woman of the
Silla royal clan, thus somewhat legitimizing his rule.
Enthroned as the founder king of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), the name of
which was derived from Goguryeo, he drafted 10 injunctions for his successors
to observe. Among the 10 injunctions he predicted probable conflict between
his state and the northern nomadic states with Goguryeo's territory as the objective,
and advised the strengthening of the state. He advised that Buddhist temples
must not be interfered with, and warned against the usurpation and internal
conflicts among the royal clans and the weakening of local power.
King Taejo's (Wang Geon's posthumous title) lenient policy plus his marriage
ties kept the rebellious local lords relatively obedient. To weaken local power,
King Gwangjong (r.949-975) instituted the emancipation of slaves in 956 in order
to restore the commoner status of those unjustly bonded. This helped to increase
revenue and was welcomed by people unjustly forced into captivity.
Two years later, he installed a civil service examination system to recruit
officials by merit. His successor King Gyeongjong (r.975-981) put into practice
the granting of land and forest lots to officials. These policies enabled the
Goryeo Dynasty to gain a foothold as a centralized government. King Seongjong
(r.981-997) in 982 adopted the suggestions in the memorial written by Confucian
scholar Choe Seung-no and paved the way to rule by a Confucian state model.
District officials were appointed by the central government, and all arms privately
owned were collected to be recast into agricultural tools.
The government organization was set up after the Tang system, but the power
to make admonitions to the throne on the part of officials and censorship of
royal decisions was instituted. With such internal order, Goryeo was long able
to withstand foreign invasion.
The Khitan rose to power
and began to confederate, transforming their old tribal league into
a centralized organization. They conquered Balhae in 926 and, officially
came to be called Liao in 938. As noted earlier, the people of Balhae
fled to Goryeo, but Liao was now ready to strike, and Goryeo tried in
vain to open diplomatic relations. Liao initiated attacks in 983, in
985, in 989, and in 993, continuing to harass Goryeo. However, in 993,
Goryeo's commanding general Seo Hui (940-998), facing a stalemate with
the Liao army, convened peace talks with Liao general Hsiao to end the
enmity with the recognition of the Goryeo's territorial rights of south
of the Amnokgang river.
Diplomatic relations were opened between the two states in 994. But
Liao attacked again in 1010 and the Goryeo king fled to the south. The
conflict became more complicated as the northern Jurchen tribes grew
stronger in the Korean border area of Manchuria. As the conflicts continued
to afflict war-weary Goryeo, King Hyeonjong (r.1009-1031) ordered the
carving of the Tripitaka, which consisted of about 6,000 chapters to
earn Buddha's favor. |
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A copy of Goryeo Buddhist Scripture
Jikji simche yejeol (Essential Exposition on the Direct Pointing
to the Mind's Essence), the world's earliest extant work printed
with movable metal type kept at Heungdeoksa Temple. |
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However, in 1115 the Jurchen established the Jin Empire and came into conflict
with Liao. Jin conquered Liao in 1125, and turned to an invasion of Song. By
1126 it conquered the Northern Song which fled south of the Yangtze River. Two
Song emperors were captured by Jin, and royal as well as private Song libraries
came into Jin possession.
Goryeo had its own calamity that year. In 1126, all of the palace buildings,
including tens of thousand of books in the royal library and national academy,
went up in smoke when the palace buildings were set afire by the father-in-law
of King Injong. Goryeo lost the famed collection, and there was no way to obtain
books from the Song. To print books with wood blocks was prohibitive in cost
and too time consuming. Then came the idea of typography and the casting of
bronze type began with the same technology that was used in coin-casting. Goryeo
printing with movable metal type was developed to print many titles in limited
copies around the mid-12th century.
In 1145, King Injong (r.1112-1146) had a Confucian scholar, Kim Bu-sik, compile
the
Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms). About one hundred years
later, a monk by the name of Iryeon compiled the
Samguk yusa (Memorabilia
of the Three Kingdoms), which records important history and traditions that
are not found in the
Samguk sagi.
Conflict increased between civil and military officials as the latter lost their
former status and were paid poorly. In 1170, the military officials rose up
against the civil officials and paid them back with bloodshed. Around this time
the Mongols consolidated power, and the new Song techniques of smelting iron
with cork was utilized by the Mongols in the production of arms. With the new
arms, the Mongols conquered Jin in 1215 and chased the diehard Liao refugees
into the territory of Goryeo, which was consequently plagued by consecutive
Mongol invasions. As a result, the Goryeo court and officials fled to Ganghwado
island in 1232.
Mongols invaded in 1238 and looted Goryeo, destroying the splendid Silla pagoda
of Hwangnyongsa temple. The Goryeo court on Ganghwado island carved the second
Tripitaka Koreana consisting of over 80,000 wood blocks inscribed on both sides,
which is now stored at Haeinsa temple. This enormous task was also conducted
with pious patriotism to secure Buddha's protection against the Mongols. The
people of Goryeo united to resist the foreign invaders and safeguard the nation
despite the incessant attacks and invasions.
From the middle of the 14th century, Mongol power declined rapidly, with their
own internal struggles for the throne, and in the 1340s, frequent rebellions
broke out all over China.
Freed at last from Mongol domination, Goryeo began efforts to reform its government.
King Gongmin (r.1351-1374) first removed Pro-Mongol aristocrats and military
officers. These deposed people formed a dissident faction which plotted an unsuccessful
coup against the king.
A second internal problem was the question of land holdings. By now the land-grant
system had broken down, and Mongol-favored officials and military men, along
with a handful of landed gentry, owned vast areas of agricultural land, which
was worked by tenant farmers and bondsmen. King Gongmin's attempt at land reform
was met with opposition and subterfuge from those officials who were charged
with implementing his reforms, as they were landowners and the policy of land
ownership was supposed to undergo a drastic change.
A third problem was the rising animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian
scholars. During most of the dynastic period, Buddhism and Confucian creeds
coexisted with little conflict. It must be noted here that by this time, Korean
scholars had become inculcated with the Neo-Confucian doctrine as advocated
by Ju Hui in the late 12th century, just before the advent of the Mongols. The
new Confucian scholars did not agree with the idea that one should denounce
one's family ties to become a monk because the very basis of Confucian philosophy
was founded on strong family and social relationships. The wealth and power
of the monasteries and the great expense incurred by the state for Buddhist
festivals became a major target of criticism.
Another problem was that Japanese pirates were no longer small bands of raiders,
but organized military marauders attacking deep into the country. It was at
that time that General Yi Seong-gye distinguished himself by repelling the pirates
in a series of successful engagements.