Ancient Age | Rock carvings on the Bangudae Cliff in Ulsan, national treasure no. 285 |
| The earliest examples of sculpture known in Korea are some rock carvings on the Ban-gudae Cliff in Ulsan on the southeastern edge of the peninsula and some clay figurines of men and animals dating from the Neolithic Age. The Bronze Age saw the active production of bronze, earthenware and clay figurines, but it was not until the introduction of Buddhism that sculpture in Korea began to develop in both quantity and quality. Any old sculpture worth mentioning falls in the category of Buddhist art. |
Goguryeo Period | Gilt-bronze standing Buddha with the inscription "yeongga seventh year" (539), national treasure no. 199 |
| Buddhist images were brought into the country when Buddhism was first introduced to Goguryeo in A.D.372. It is believed that not until several decades later did Korean artisans begin to make Buddhist images. Although there is no tangible proof, it is quite plausible that Goguryeo was the earliest of the Three Kingdoms to make Buddhist images, as it was the first to be exposed to the religion. The construction of temples such as Chomunsa and Ibullansa three years after Buddhism reached Goguryeo supports this assumption. Murals in tombs and many historic records also indicate that Buddhism greatly influenced the culture of Goguryeo.
Nevertheless, no Buddhist images that date before 500 have been found in Korea. A gilt-bronze image of a seated Buddha of the fourth or fifth century was recently discovered in Ttukseom in Seoul, which was part either of the Baekje or Goguryeo Kingdom, but it is also believed to be a Chinese import, as its style is strongly suggestive of the Northern Wei sculpture. If proven to be a Korean imitation of a Chinese Buddha, it would be the earliest example of a Korean-made Buddhist sculpture. As it is, the earliest Goguryeo Buddhas or indeed the earliest Korean Buddhas with definitive inscriptions of date appear only after the sixth century. |
The rugged terrain and the harsh climate of Goguryeo's vast territory are reflected in its arts, which were heavily influenced by the temperamental and vital style
of the Northern Wei bordering the kingdom on its continental side. The geometric
quality of the Northern Wei art which accompanied the introduction of Buddhism,
produced a straightforward style. It is not easy to define the style of Goguryeo
Buddhas from the few extant diminutive gilt-bronze or clay figurines. Nevertheless,
assuming these to be representative of the general sculptural trends of the
time, a number of identifying characteristics can be drawn. The Goguryeo Buddhas
have lean elongated faces, prominent usnisas (a protuberance on top of the head
symbolic of the marks of Buddha) on mostly shaven heads, rigid cylindrical bodies
draped by thick robes that have fish-tail folds at the hem on both sides, and
hands that are disproportionately large. The boat-shaped nimbuses encircle not
only the heads but also most of the length of the bodies and are decorated with
crude but meticulously depicted flames. The pedestals, which are cylindrical,
are finished with lotus petals carved with a masculine feel.
Embodying all the characteristics is the Tongsa Buddha. A gilt-bronze standing
Buddha with the inscription "yeongga seventh year," which corresponds to 539,
it was made at Dongsa temple in Pyongyang and was found in 1967 in Hacheon-ri,
Gyeongsangnam-do province. The archaic smile of its elongated face, the rigid
body draped in a thick robe and the hem of the robe that is pointed like feathers
at the sides, all work together to produce its spiritual quality.
Another gilt bronze Buddhist triad with the inscription "gyemi year" as its
casting date, which corresponds to 563, was uncovered in Seoul. It also shows
the same characteristics. However, a relaxing of the tension and rigidity is
seen in a triad bearing the inscription "sinmyo year," or 571. Though basically
of the style influenced by Northern Wei, as illustrated by the symmetrical folds
of its thick robe, a slight change in modeling is apparent in the fullness of
its face and the much softer rendering of the hems of the robe that fluctuate
in an M-shape. This is probably attributable to the influences of Eastern and
Western Wei or even the early Northern Qi or Zhou which resulted in a new style
very much Goguryeo's own. A number of clay Buddhas of the same style found in
Wono-ri, Pyeongannam-do province (North Korea) are believed to have been made
in the mid-sixth century, though they are without inscribed dates. As Goguryeo's
artisans improved and Buddhism became firmly established, sculpture experienced
many stylistic changes and a truly Goguryeo style developed around 560.
 | Buddha Triad Carved on Rock Surface, Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do, national treasure no. 84 |
| Buddhism was introduced to Baekje via Eastern Jin by an Indian monk named Marananta in 384, 12 years after it was introduced to Goguryeo. The production of Buddhist images in Baekje is believed to have begun no later than the 5th century, because the aforementioned diminutive giltbronze Buddha excavated in Seoul implies that local imitations of the Chinese and Indian Buddhas could have been made by that time, and because ancient records show that a temple was built in 385 in Hanseong, today's Seoul. However, Baekje images inscribed with 5th century dates have not yet been found. The earliest examples date from the 6th century and include a stone triad and some clay images from Jeongnimsa temple, a gilt-bronze standing Buddha from the site of Bowonsa temple, some Buddhas carved around a boulder in Yesan, and a gilt-bronze Buddha with the name Jeong Ji-won inscribed on it. Though retaining the traditions of Wei and the Goguryeo style exemplified by the Wono-ri Buddha in their refined faces, thick robes and graceful forms, these Buddhas show signs of Baekje modifications. |
Characteristics unique to Baekje sculpture are clearly evident in all the Buddhist images of the late 6th century, including an agalmatolite seated Buddha and a giltbronze bodhisattva from Gunsu-ri, and stone reliefs of Buddhist triads in Seosan and Taean. It is recorded that artisans and painters were invited to Baekje from Liang China in 541. The arts of the southern dynasties of China, therefore, must have influenced Baekje sculpture from the midsixth century onward. Whatever their influences were, Baekje Buddhas of the time are characterized by warm, human attributes.
The small usnisa, the stately but relaxed body, the voluminous curvature under the thick robe, the diminished side-flare of the hems of the robe, the folds of the robe of the bodhisattva that cross each other in the shape of an X and the simple but refined rendering of the lotus petals of the pedestals, are all definitely local traits Baekje artisans developed from the Chinese styles of the late Northern Wei, Qi and Zhou. What makes the Baekje Buddha truly unique is the unfathomable benevolent smile that graces its round pleasant face. That expression, often labeled the "Baekje smile," is one of a kind.
Influenced by the Sui and Tang dynasties of China, Buddhist images became elongated and slender around 600. The modeling of the bodies became much fuller and some bodhisattvas were depicted slightly twisted with S-shaped postures rather than in upright, static positions. These traits are best illustrated by a giltbronze standing bodhisattva in the Cha Myeong-ho collection, a gilt-bronze standing Buddha from Gyuam-myeon in Buyeo, and a seated stone Sakyamuni in Yeondong-ri, Iksan, Jeollabuk-do province. Baekje sculpture can be described as being more refined and subtle, the result, perhaps, of its more temperate climate and fertile ands.
Silla Period | Maitreya seated half cross-legged (National Museum collection), national treasure no. 83 |
| It took time for Silla to officially accept Buddhism because of the kingdom's
conservatism and geographical remoteness, but when it finally did in 527, the
production of Buddhist images flourished. A Buddha about five meters tall was
made in Hwangnyong-sa temple within two or three decades of Buddhism's acceptance
as a state religion. Buddhist sculpture developed so rapidly that by 579, Silla
artisans were exporting their works to Japan. This growth was made possible
by the originality of Silla's artists and the cultural influences of the neighboring
Baekje kingdom and Goguryeo Kingdom.
Examples of early Silla sculpture include a gilt-bronze standing Buddha which
is believed to have come from Hwangnyongsa temple, a stone relief of a group
of Buddhas on Mt. Danseoksan in Gyeongju, a Maitreya seated half cross-legged
(National Museum collection) and a gilt-bronze standing bodhisattva excavated
from Gochang (\Kansong Museum collection). Of these, the relief on Mt. Danseok-san
best represents the techniques and style of early Silla. The giant Buddha of
Hwangnyonsa temple, which unfortunately was destroyed, must have been of great
artistic value as it is recorded to have been one of the three most important
treasures of Silla. |
The 7th century saw drastic changes in both the quantity and quality of Buddhist
sculpture. The seated stone Buddha of Inwang-ri of Gyeongju; the headless figure
seated half cross-legged in a posture of meditation on Mt. Songhwasan; a Buddhist
group in Tapgok; a part of a stone figure in a half-seated meditational posture,
and a stone relief of Buddha, both from Murya in Bonghwa; and a standing gilt-bronze
bodhisattva (the former Deoksugung Museum collection) are some examples of this
period that share the same stylistic traits. Some of them are portrayed in geometric
abstraction, with some indication of Qi and Zhou influences. Some others display
Sui and Tang influences, evident in their round, full faces, relaxed bodies
and the realistic rendering of the garments.
The stone relief of Tapgok and the triad of Samhwaryeong best illustrate the
Silla sculpture of the time. The Buddha, the central figure of the triad, is
seated on a low stool in a rather awkward pose. With a low usnisa, the round,
smiling face, the elegant rendering of the body under the thin robe, the shallow
relief of the sparse folds which cluster at the knee, the Buddhist swastika
on the forehead, the decorative knot of the belt, and the simple halo, all indicate
a stylistic departure from the previous period. Chinese influences of the Qi,
Zhou, and especially of Northern Zhou, are quite obvious. The triad is believed
to date from around 600, pre-dating slightly a triad in Bae-ri, which is believed
to have been made in the early 600s.
Unified Silla Period After Silla defeated Goguryeo and Baekje and unified the Korean Peninsula, the regional differences between the Three Kingdoms were integrated gradually and, with the assimilation of Tang Chinese elements, a new style unique to Unified Silla emerged around 700. Examples of the early Unified Silla period are the Buddhist guardian kings of Sacheonwangsa and Seokjangsa temples, the Buddhist triad of Gunwi, the stone relief of Buddha in Gaheung-ri of Yeongju, a group of relief images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas from Yeon-gi, and two gold Buddhas from Guhwang-ri. Each reflects the confusion of the transitional era while still retaining some regional elements. For instance, in the case of the triad of Gunwi, which is similar to the gold Buddhas of Guhwang-ri except for the facial depiction, traditional abstraction is combined with a new realism. This is seen in the modeling of the shaven head with a prominent usnisa, the solemn face
with thick eyelids and elongated ears, and the dignified but rather crouched
body which is supported by an angular pedestal.
 | Stone Buddha inside the Seokguram Grotto, national treasure no. 24 |
Realism also became more prevalent in the early 8th century, but as can be seen in the Amitabha and Maitreya images of Gamsansa temple, it is mixed with idealistic elements. The curvilinear lines and the voluminous, elastic bodies of these
two images are encountered repeatedly in the Buddhas of Gulbulsa temple, the
seated Sakyamuni of Boriam Hermitage, the stone relief of Chilburam Hermitage,
and the Buddhist group of Seokguram Grotto.
Needless to say, the Seokguram images are the masterpieces of the sculptural
art as well as the supreme embodiment of the religious spirituality of the time.
The image of the Sakyamuni Buddha in the rotunda of the grotto is testament
to the genius of Korean sculpture, with its superb rendering of the round face,
long brows, a perfect nose and ethereal smile, and the magnificent, lifelike
body clothed in a thin robe that falls in shallow folds.
These idealized and realistic features and sensual resiliency disappeared gradually
after Seokguram Grotto. This tendency is best shown in the newly discovered
stone Vairocana Buddha of Seongnam-sa temple in Mt. Jirisan dated 766. By 800
there emerged a neo-realistic style which emphasized a solemness of facial expression
and human proportions. Buddhas of this period are characterized by a subdued
expression and a lack of vitality in lines and form. This style is most evident
in the stone relief of Mt. Bang-eosan, which was made in 835, and the triad
of Yunchigok Valley of Mt. Namsan, Gyeongju, which was made in 801. A number
of Vairocana and Bhaisajyaguru Buddhas were made in the mid-ninth century in
many temples throughout the country, including Dong-hwasa, Borimsa, Dopiansa,
Chukseosa, Buseoksa and Beopjusa. All are variations of this style. In the later
years, there appeared a tendency to exaggerate the upper part of the body. Buddhas
of magnificent proportion were also made occasionally.
Goryeo dynasty, which succeeded Silla, proclaimed itself to be a Buddhist nation.
The iron Buddha of Gwangju, the stone Buddha triad of Gaetaesa temple, the gilt-bronze
Buddha of Munsusa temple and the wooden Buddha of Bongnimsa temple, all are
representative of the best of Goryeo works.
 | Stone Buddha triad of Gaetaesa temple, Yeonsan, Chungcheongnamdo, national treasure no. 219 |
The quality as well as the quantity of Buddhist sculpture declined rapidly,
however, at the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). Nevertheless, during
the 15th century when Buddhism was suppressed by the government, Buddha images
of good quality were still being made. Most of the existing Joseon images were
made after the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598 when Buddhism recovered some
of its former vitality and splendor. Buddhas of this period have their own unique
qualities and merits.
Modern PeriodModern Korean sculpture was introduced to Korea in 1923 by young artist named Kim Bok-jin. He entered the Tokyo School of Fine Art in 1919, and won a entrance prize at competition which was held by the Japanese government in 1923. He returned home to become the first Korean ever to be trained in the sculptural art of the Western style. A few other students then enrolled in the same Japanese institution in order to study modern sculpture. Those artists, including Kim Jong-yeong, Kim Gyeong-seung and Yun Hyo-jung soon joined Kim Bok-jin in introducing sculpture
influenced by European traditions to Korea. They were mostly absorbed with sculpting
portions of the human body such as heads, torsos and costumes in a realistic
manner, which they had learned in Tokyo and where academic realism prevailed.
These sculptors were active in presenting works at national art exhibitions
held annually under government sponsorship both in Seoul and in Tokyo. This
early stage of modern sculpture suffered from a lack of creative inspiration
despite the pioneering zeal of these early artists, who were largely obsessed
with imitating Western sculpture and transplanting it to Korea's cultural soil.
These artistic limitations were also aggravated by the colonial situation. Since
Korea's colonization by Japan in 1910, Koreans link to the outside world was
largely colored by Japanese will. It is from this general perspective that the
overall background and development of sculpture as a major aesthetic movement
in modern Korean history should be viewed.
By the 1930s, however, the national circumstances were far from conducive to
lively activity among artists, as Japan was pulling its colonial reins ever
more tightly in preparation for World War II. In 1945 Korea was liberated, but
the overall situation did not improve and actually became even worse for aesthetic
creation, as the southern half of the peninsula headed into ideological conflicts
and military confrontation with the northern half.
Admiration of Western sculpture breathed some life into the activities of Korean
sculptors during this unstable period, however. Yun Hyo-jung met Marino Marini
in Venice in 1952, and was greatly influenced by the famous sculptor and his
works. Futhermore, in 1954, the work of Kim Jong-yeong was selected by the international
sculpture competition held in England. It was the first time in the 20th century
that Korean sculpture was introduced to Europe. Kim Jong-yeong, although in
many ways a traditional scholar-artist well-trained in the Confucian classics,
also became a pioneer of Korean abstract sculpture.
After the Armistice Agreement which brought the three-year Korean War to a cease-fire
in 1953, art circles began to regain some vitality. A few large-scale exhibitions
were held by private organizations, and these helped encourage a remarkable
diversity in style and technique most visible in the fields of painting and
sculpture. Among the exhibitions of notable significance were the annual membership
show sponsored by the Korean Fine Art Association, and the Contemporary Korean
Art Exhibition for Invited Artists sponsored by the daily newspaper
Chosun
Ilbo. The latter deserves special note for providing emerging artists of
avant-garde tendencies the chance to display their works.
Modern Korean sculpture became firmly established by the end of the 1950s. As
the conflict between the opposing schools of realism and abstractionism was
increasing, sculptors began to employ a greater diversity of materials, including
assorted metals and stone, thus breaking with their traditional reliance on
plaster and wood.
Between the 1960s and the 1970s, Korean sculpture made impressive progress due
to the country's rapid economic development. Dominating the Korean sculptural
arts during this period of dramatic change were two major international modern
art movements. The first of these was the so-called "antiformal abstractionism,"
first introduced to Korea in the early 1960s. The movement, which acquired a
major impetus with the creation of the Korean Avant-Garde Art Association, breathed
new life into the world of Korean sculpture throughout this period. Sculptors
of this vein repudiated all natural forms respected by the traditional school
of academic realism. They sought to give spontaneous expression to their emotions
through nonrepresentational shapes. In the following decade of the 1970s, this
emotional abstractionism faced a strong challenge from another new art movement
that opposed its conception and style, called "aculptural conceptualism."
Sculptural conceptualism pursued pure abstraction, free from all emotional binds
and connotations. In terms of style, artists of this movement favored simple
and daring forms in contrast to those of the previous generation of antiformal
vanguardism which tended to be complex and intricate. The 1980s experienced
an unprecedented burgeoning of sculptors and sculptural activity. A number of
young artists became nostalgic about past trends of a more humane nature, in
reaction to the cold intellectualism of the previous decade.
 | | Paik Nam-june |
| Since the 1980s, Korean sculpture has embarked upon new and culturally diverse
trends. Foremost among them is the establishment of a new realistic tendency
by artists primarily concerned with restoring the communication between artists
and the public. Genre boundaries between sculptures and other forms of arts
were also being broken down. In addition, technology became a very important
element in the sculptural art of this period. The video sculptures of Paik Nam-june were a starting point for these artistic movements. These trends all reveal the extent to which traditional concept of sculpture in Korea has been recast by the introduction of new media, which in turn has brought about a newer and more socially diverse relationship between the artist and the public. |
