BirthKorean women have been encouraged to produce male children. In the past, prosperity
was judged by the number of male offspring in a family. No matter how many daughters
were born, the absence of a male child was grounds for divorce, and men often
took concubines with the hope of fathering a son.
The son preference is rooted deeply in the Confucian patriarchal system. It
was the women's duty to produce a male heir to ensure the continuance of her
husband's bloodline so that he could perform important ancestral rites.
As the birth of a son was considered a blessing from various spirits, many prayers
and rituals were undertaken by women with the hope of receiving such a blessing.
Women often prayed and made offerings to the samsin
halmeoni (grandmother
spirit), the Big Dipper, mountain spirits, Buddha, and to certain rocks and
trees considered to be sacred. According to the myth of Korea's founding, such
an offering was made by the mother of Dan-gun, the founder of Korea, under a
large tree before his birth. These shrines were usually visited and prayers
offered in the dead of night or in the early dawn after certain ablutions had
taken place. A woman might make such offerings for a period of anywhere between
21 to 100 days.
Of these spirits,
samsin halmeoni was most associated with childbirth.
Koreans believe this spirit had a hand in the birth of children and that it
cared for the child's growth and rearing as well. Folding white paper or some
clean straw in a corner of the
anbang room, this makeshift shrine was
used as a place for women to bring offerings and say their prayers. Only with
the protection of
samsin halmeoni, it was believed, could an easy birth
occur and the mother's quick recovery be assured. The Mongolian spot, or blue
mark found on the buttocks of Asian infants was thought to be the place where
the spirit slaps the infant to bring it to life.
When pregnancy occurs, there are many rules and taboos that must be observed
to ensure a healthy child and a safe delivery. The woman must not approach nor
do anything considered to be unclean. She must not kill anything. She must be
careful where she urinates and must not step over a straw rope, steal or do
other mischievous things. If the woman does any of these things it is believed
she will either have a difficult delivery, bear a child that may be retarded
or diseased, or cause some other misfortune to befall the family. Also, there
are many foods such as rabbit, squid, crab, eggs and peaches that are considered
harmful to eat. It was thought, for example, that if the mother consumed a great
deal of chicken, the skin of the child would be prickly like a chicken; likewise,
if she ate a large share of duck meat, the child would walk like a duck. For
the health of the child and the mother, all of the family members cooperated
and saw to it that these taboos were respected.
As the time of delivery approaches, the fireplace and holes in paper doors should
not be repaired, and the family should not see a burning house as they are considered
bad luck and will adversely affect the unborn child. To ensure an easy delivery,
all doors are kept open, the husband's clothes are used as quilts, and clothes
are borrowed from a woman who had an easy childbirth to cover the woman from
the onset of labor.
There are various ways of trying to determine the gender of the unborn child.
Some involve the physical appearance of the pregnant woman, others involve dream
interpretation; still others involve complicated calculations based on the ages
of the parents. If the mother dreams about horses, oxen, dragons, tigers, bears,
or other large animals, she will deliver a male child. If she dreams of flowers
or toys that girls play with, she will deliver a female child.
Upon the birth of a child, a straw rope, or
geumjul, is hung across the
gate to the house. These talismans are used to frighten away evil spirits as
well as to warn people not to enter the premises, as a child has recently been
born. The rope, twisted in a leftward spiral, is usually intertwined with pine
branches and red peppers, signifying a male, or pine branches and charcoal indicating
a female. This custom varies from region to region with seaweed, small rocks
and pieces of paper often intertwined in the rope. The
geumjul is usually
posted for 21 days. If more children are desired, the afterbirth, including
the placenta, is burned under the eaves of the house. If no more children are
desired, these are burned some distance from the house, usually in a clean,
sunny place on the side of a mountain. The ashes are often scattered to the
winds or in a river.
For seven days after childbirth, rice and seaweed soup are offered to the
samsin
halmeoni during the mornings and evenings. These foods are then eaten by
the mother to aid in her recovery. Special offerings are made on the 14th and
21st days after birth.
Family members are careful not to show their happiness over the birth of a child
and do not speak of its beauty or health, as such behavior and speech are thought
to make the spirits jealous, thereby causing potential harm to the child. To
ensure that this does not happen, children are often given lowly nicknames like
Dog's Dung, Straw Bag and Stonehead. Also, in order to keep the spirits happy,
no animals are butchered and people in mourning and those who have taken part
in a funeral are not permitted to enter the house. It is feared such activities
will bring the wrath of the spirits on the family, and especially, on the newborn
child.
Birthday CelebrationsIn Korea, on the 100th day after a child's birth, a small feast is prepared
to celebrate the child's having survived this difficult period. If the child
is sick at this time, the family passes the day with neither announcement nor
party, for to do otherwise may bring bad luck for the infant.
At this time, the spirit is honored with offerings of rice and soup in gratitude
for having cared for the infant and the mother, and for having helped them live
through a difficult period. The family, relatives and friends then celebrate
with rice cakes, wine, and other delicacies such as red and black bean cakes
sweetened with sugar or honey.
To prevent potential harm to the child and to bring him or her good luck and
happiness, red bean cakes are customarily placed at the four compass points
within the house. If the steamed rice cakes are shared with 100 people, it is
believed that the child will have a long life. Therefore, rice cakes are usually
sent to as many people as possible to help celebrate the happiness of the occasion.
Those who receive rice cakes return the vessels with skeins of thread, expressing
the hope of longevity, and rice and money, symbolizing future wealth.
Such customs are also part of the dol,
or first birthday, celebration. Because of the high infant mortality rates
in the past, this celebration is considered to be even more important.
Like the 100th day celebration, it begins with offerings of rice and soup
to the spirit. However, the highlight of this celebration is when the
child symbolically foretells his or her own future. | | Dol, the first birthday celebration |
|
For this ritual, the child is dressed in new traditional clothes. The child is seated before a table of various foods and objects such as thread, books,
notebooks, brushes, ink and money which have all been given to the family by
friends and relatives. The child is urged to pick up an object from the table,
as it is believed the one selected first will foretell the child's future. If
the child picks up a writing brush or book, for example, he is destined to be
a scholar. If he picks up money or rice, he will be wealthy; cakes or other
food, a government official; a sword or bow, a military commander. If the child
picks up the thread, it is believed he will live a long life.
This is followed by feasting, singing and playing with the toddler. Most often
guests will present gifts of money, clothes, or gold rings to the parents for
the child at this time. Upon departure, guests are given packages of rice cakes
and other foods to take with them. This sharing of rice cakes is thought to
bring the child long life and happiness.
The hwan-gap, or 60th birthday,
has also been considered an especially important birthday celebration,
for this is the day when one has completed the zodiacal cycle. Even more
important is the fact that, in the past, before the advent of modern medicine,
not many people lived to be 60 years old. A hwan-gap was therefore
a time of great celebration when children honor their parents with a large
feast and much merrymaking. |
| Hwan-gap, the 60th birthday celebration | |
With the parents seated at the main banquet table, sons and daughters, in order of age, bow and offer wine to their parents. After the direct descendants have performed this ritual, the father's younger brothers and their sons and then younger friends pay their respects in the same manner. While these rituals are being carried out, traditional music is usually played and professional entertainers sing songs, urging people to drink.
Family members and relatives indulge in various activities to make the parents
feel young, often dressing like small children and dancing and singing songs.
In the old days, guests would compete in composing poetry or songs in celebration
of the occasion.
In the past, years after the 60th birthday were regarded as extra years and
although subsequent birthdays called for a celebration, they were not observed
as lavishly as the hwan-gap party. Upon the 70th birthday, or "
gohui,"
meaning old and rare, another celebration equal in scale with the
hwan-gap
was celebrated. Ordinary birthday celebrations of each member of the family
calls for ample food, wine and specially prepared delicacies although smaller
in size and scope than the
hwan-gap and the first birthday celebrations
(dol).
MarriageThe 60th wedding anniversary is accorded big celebrations. Not only does this anniversary mark the successful achievement of a long and productive life but
it signifies that longevity was shared by two people. One might wonder how it
was possible that a couple live to see their 60th anniversary, but in the past,
people usually married at an early age. During the Joseon period, marriage at
the age of 12 was not uncommon; women, however, generally married at the age
of 16. The bridegroom tended to be a couple of years younger than the bride,
especially among upper-class families. For financial reasons, males of the lower
classes tended to marry at a later age. Nevertheless, most people usually were
married before the age of 20.
As boys and girls traditionally were not allowed to get together on their own,
there was little chance for love to develop. And, if by some chance, there was
the igniting of a romantic spark, it was never allowed to be expressed. In Confucian
society, the ability to repress one's emotions was regarded as a sign of good
upbringing and education.
In the past, affection or love played no part in the choice of a spouse. The
young couple had little or nothing to say in the matter since marriage usually
was arranged by the parents with the aid of a matchmaker. The couple generally
did not meet until the day of the wedding. Times have changed, however, and
there are now two paths leading to marriage. The first,
yeonae, or a
love match, involves the meeting, falling in love, and marriage of two people
without the involvement of third party. The second,
jungmae, or arranged
marriage, involves the arranged meeting of two people by a go-between and leads,
upon agreement of the two parties, to marriage.
The year, month, day and hour of birth are thought to influence one's destiny.
These critical data are referred to as the four pillars,
saju. A thorough
examination of the four pillars of the man and woman determines if they can
live harmoniously together as a married couple. Referred to as gunghap divination,
the future fortunes of a couple's life together are divined by a fortuneteller,
an event which is considered an essential part of the marriage process. If the
gunghap predicts difficulty or misfortunes, the two parties may lose
interest and cancel plans for marriage.
When the four pillars and
gunghap are considered acceptable, the couple
becomes engaged. At the engagement ceremony, the two families get together at
the girl's house or sometimes at a hotel or restaurant, but never at the boy's
house. The two young people exchange gifts, and a piece of hand-made white paper
on which the man's four pillars have been written is ceremoniously presented
to the girl's family. A discussion follows and the marriage date is selected.
A few days before the scheduled marriage ceremony, the man's family usually
sends a box (
ham) containing gifts (
yemul) for the bride. These
normally are yards of red and blue fabric for a traditional dress and jewelry.
In the past, a servant usually carried the box, but nowadays friends of the
bridegroom generally perform the honor.
The box was usually delivered at night and upon approaching the house, the carrier,
with much frolicking and joking, would shout, "Buy a
ham!
Ham
for sale." The
ham would not be given to the parents of the bride until wine and food and a sum of money had been given in return. Upon receiving the money, the carrier would then present the
ham to the bride's mother. For his services the carrier would be treated to a feast at which time the bride's mother would
open the
ham and examine the contents.
The traditional wedding ceremony normally
was held at in the courtyard of the bride's house. It began with the bride
and groom exchanging bows and drinks. This was done facing each other
with the wedding table between them. On the table were red and blue threads,
burning candles, red beans, rice, jujubes, chestnuts, dried persimmons,
rice cakes and a pair of ducks which symbolize lasting conjugal affection.
During the bowing ritual, the bride was usually assisted by an elderly
female servant or one or two women well versed in wedding procedures. | | A traditional Korean wedding ceremony. |
|
With the approach of night, the newly married couple would retire to their prepared
room. It was considered great sport for relatives to peep into the room by making
holes in the paper doors. The bridegroom would first take off the bride's headpiece,
undo her coat string, and remove only one of her socks. He would then put out
the candle, being careful not to blow it out as it was thought to do so would
bring bad luck. He would extinguish it with a stick prepared for this purpose.
Once they entered the room, they could not leave until sunrise, when the young
husband would then visit with his in-laws.
The newly married couple, accompanied by the bride's father or uncle and a small
procession carrying various articles and gifts would travel to the bridegroom's
home. The bride usually rode in a palanquin, while the bridegroom led the procession
(
sinhaeng) on horseback. The
sinhaeng was followed by another
ceremony called
pyebaek. This was the bride's first greeting to her parents-in-law
and the other members of her husband's family. During this ceremony, the bride
would bow to her husband's parents who were seated before a table of cooked
chicken, jujubes, chestnuts, and fruits. Also at this time the bride would present
the groom's parents with gifts of silk, and greetings were exchanged between
them.
After staying a few days at the groom's house, the couple would again travel
to the bride's home to report to her parents. At such a time there would be
a large party to familiarize the groom with the bride's family, especially with
the young men of the bride's clan group. This was characterized by much boisterousness
and rough handling of the groom. Often times, the husband was encouraged to
drink beyond his capacity; he was also playfully hit with dried fish or sticks.
Nowadays, weddings are usually held in public wedding halls and churches. With
the accompaniment of piano music, the bridegroom, wearing a Western-style suit,
enters the hall where guests are seated and stands before the presiding person.
The bride, dressed in a Western wedding gown, then enters the hall and escorted
by her father, takes her place by the groom. Facing each other before the officiator,
the bride and groom exchange vows and gifts. The officiator usually gives a
sermon about love, marriage and the new social responsibilities involved in
married life. The bride and groom then bow to the guests; photo sessions usually
follow the ceremony in addition to a large feast.
Although the marriage ceremony itself has changed, many of the traditional practices
and ceremonies leading to the wedding are still observed, although modified
for today's modern lifestyle.
Funeral Rites
Korean funeral rites reveal a great deal about how Koreans view death, and in
particular, how they cope with the death of a close family member. Koreans held
that if a person had succumbed to either illness or from natural causes outside
the comforts of the home, the deceased spirit would roam aimlessly to eventually
become a ghost or gaekgwi. To ensure that their dead would not become wandering
ghosts, family members took many precautions; among them, being present during
the last moments of a dying relative was particularly important. Korean families
went to great lengths to transport the weak and the weary back to their own
homes when they felt that death was near or imminent.
Traditionally, funeral rites also adhered to strict Confucian norms. For example,
women were restricted from entering or witnessing the death throes of a male
relative; likewise, men were not permitted to observe the last moments of a
female, regardless of the relationship.
When death arrived, it was customary for the family members who had been present
during the last moments of the departed one to wail (
gok). The purpose
of
gok involved a combination of factors. While it obviously provided
a means of expressing the sorrow and sadness of the mourners at losing a close
relative, it also involved the expression of guilt by the mourners who might
believe that it was because of their lack of pious actions toward the departed
which had caused his or her ultimate demise.
Mourners donned simple garbs appropriate to the occasion. The men wore a sleeveless
coat and the women, freed of all jewelry and accessories, refrained from combing
their hair. The corpse would be laid with its hands and feet bound tightly together.
One of the relatives would then take a coat of the deceased to the roof of the
house and called out his or her name three times. Then, the coat was taken back
into the house and used as a cover for the corpse. This ritual was called
chohon
or
gobok.
Obituary notices used to be sent to all clan members, friends and acquaintances
by servants or hired messengers, but this is prohibited now because of the social
emphasis of simplifying family rituals. In the past, when the obituary notice
was received, it was read out loud near the entrance gates of the house as it
was thought bad luck to bring obituary notices into the house itself. The notice
was then hung on the walls of outhouses.
The day following the death of the deceased, preparations are made for burial.
The first of these preparations involved
seup, or bathing and dressing
the corpse. The bath water was perfumed and after drying the corpse the hair
was combed and fallen hair carefully collected. Finger and toe nails were manicured.
These clippings were also collected. The fallen hair and the clippings were
then placed in five small pouches called,
joballang. Later,
joballang
was placed in the coffin along with the corpse. With a wooden spoon made from
a willow tree, three spoonfuls of rice were fed to the corpse. As the first
spoonful was fed, a close person to the deceased called out, "
Ilcheonseogiyo,"
meaning one thousand bags of rice. At the second and third spoonful, the man
makes further calls and some coins were inserted in the cavity. It was thought
that the journey by the deceased soul to the next world could be eased by the
rice and money the family had bestowed upon the departed.
Seup was followed
by the process of
yeom, in which the corps was wrapped in
suui
made from hemp or silk. After the corpse was dressed in the
suui, it
was wrapped with a quilted cloth called
yeompo made of hemp cloth; the
corpse was then bound with ropes seven times before being put into the coffin.
The tightly sealed coffin was then placed carefully in a dry and secure place
within the house. A makeshift shrine was then set up called
binso where
pictures and written documents about the deceased were placed. It was here that
the mourners received guests. After these proceedings, the family of the deceased
dressed themselves in the appropriate mourning attire, called
sangbok,
which varied in length according to the family member's relationship with the
deceased.
The mourning period was based on a variety
of factors, including the social standing of the family, the social position
of the deceased, and so on. It frequently lasted about three days. In
the 18th century, however, the duration of the mourning period was over
a month for scholars. Others lasted for odd-numbered days (three, five,
or seven days). During the mourning days, the sangju (the eldest
male mourner) spent the entire time lying on a carpet with only an armrest
made of rough straw. If the mourners were to wander outdoors, they had
to wear a large-brimmed headpiece made of bamboo called banggat
so as to obstruct the view of the heavens. Enduring these very uncomfortable
living conditions was viewed as an expression of filial piety. |
|
Traditional funeral procession
(sang-yeo). |
|
On the last day of the mourning period, the funeral procession was held. On
this day, a bier was used for transporting the coffin to the grave. Before the
coffin made its way to the grave, those who carried the bier out of the house
had to stop before the gate and lower the coffin three times to signal the deceased's
final departure from the household premises. Leading the procession were persons
carrying funeral banners. The bier was decorated with dragons and Chinese phoenix
paintings. Around the bier, colorfully decorated dolls were placed to guard
the deceased.
The procession leader would sing a deep and mournful song; at the back of the
bier, family members, relatives and friends would follow. At the grave site,
a shaman who had been called upon for the occasion performed a special ritual
to exorcise the evil spirits from grave. At a predetermined time, the coffin
was then lowered and the eldest male mourner (usually an eldest son, or in the
case of the death of a child, the father) would take a deep bow. Then, taking
some earth, he would cast it upon the coffin. He did this twice. Other family
members would then follow, in turn, this same ritual proceedings, referred to
as
chwito. After the chwito was complete, hired workers finished covering
the grave with earth.
The earth was packed into a mound shape to prevent water seepage. Called
dalgujil,
this process of packing the earth by stamping on it was done with the accompaniment
of music. It also had to be done in odd-number layers (usually three to five
layers).
Often, a tombstone was erected at the grave. As soon as the mourners returned
home from the funeral service, they placed a picture and an ancestral tablet
on a wall at the front of their house. This was done for three consecutive days.
Two days after the burial, family mourners visited the grave once again and
placed food and drink in front of the grave and again made a deep bow. Only
then did the family members return to their respective homes. Jolgokje, another
memorial service, was performed one or two days after the second visit to the
grave site. On this day, family members would put away all of the funeral paraphernalia
and the mourning ritual would come to an end.
On the first anniversary of the funeral, family members held a memorial service
called
sosang. On this day, family mourners dressed in same cleaned
sangbok
which they had worn one year before. On the second anniversary a similar memorial
service called
daesang was performed. Several more services followed
in subsequent months. Only after all these services had been observed could
the family return to normal life.
Many of these practices have disappeared in recent years; others have been merely
modified and simplified. Nowadays, the three-year mourning period is no longer
observed or, at least, has been drastically shortened. Many different styles
of funeral services are also performed, due to the religious conversion of many
Koreans to Catholicism or Protestantism.
Male mourners today will also most likely wear dark suits and an armband made
of hemp cloth while the women mourners now often wear small ribbons made of
hemp cloth on their hair. Koreans have greatly changed and modified many of
their traditional customs; nevertheless, these old ways are still very important
to them and are observed through some symbolic gestures.
Memorial Services
The importance of ancestor worship in Korea is well exemplified by the expenditures
Koreans traditionally have made to prepare the ritual feast. Going to great
lengths during the harvest season to secure the pick of the crop for an upcoming
ceremonial offering, Koreans also set aside a small fortune and a great deal
of time to prepare the ritual foods.
Though much has been changed in recent years, some Korean families still keep
and maintain their ancestral shrines which often include an upwards of four
generations of ancestors.
Ancestral rituals include the "
sangjung" ritual which takes place during
the period of mourning and the "
gije" ritual, a memorial service held
on the anniversary of death. Memorial services that are commemorated on
Chuseok
or New Year's Day are called "
charye" and finally "
myoje" is conducted
at the tomb site in the lunar month of October.
In a typical memorial service, called "
jesa," a shrine was set up in
a hall to make offerings to the deceased. Several ritual greetings then followed.
The first entailed an offering of rice wine; a designated attendant would then
recite a written prayer. At the conclusion of the first ritual offering, the
eldest son would show his respects by performing a ritual bow twice.
The second offering of wine was then performed by the next eldest son. Following
the second offering of wine, another offering was carried out by either one
of the sons-in-law of the deceased or by the oldest person attending the ceremony.
Once the offerings of wine to the deceased spirits were concluded, a sequence
of rituals that symbolized the spirits' arrival and acceptance of the food and
wine was dramatized. These rituals were carried out to assist the spirits into
accepting the offerings. For example, the lid of the rice bowl would be uncovered
and a spoon settled upon the staple to assist the spirits. Similarly, a pair
of chopsticks were placed on the barbecued meat, while all the participants
stood in silent respect for the few minutes it would take the spirits to savor
the food and the wine.
Broth was also offered to the spirits, a gesture which was again followed by
a few minutes' pause to allow the spirits to eat it at leisure. When all the
ritual offerings were made, all the attendants at the ceremony bowed twice and
the spirits were joyously sent off until the next year. The table with the food
and wine offerings was then cleared and the written prayer recited earlier on
during the ceremony was set afire.
Once all of these steps were completed, the feasting of the food and wine (or
eumbok) by the family members followed. Consuming the ritual food and
wine was considered to be an integral part of the ceremony, as it symbolized
the receiving of the ancestor's blessings bestowed upon the family.
Memorial services have been simplified to a great deal and are performed only
on New Year's Day and during
Chuseok. In today's modern world, it has
become customary for many families to simply visit the ancestors' grave site
on
Chuseok. It is now common to hold ancestral rituals for only two generations
of ancestors, and in some cases, people only hold rituals for their deceased
parents. Also, in order to accommodate their busy schedule, more and more people
are holding rituals in the evening instead of midnight.
Still in most Korean families today, ancestor worship remains an integral part
of family life and is faithfully observed as such.
An individual encounters many different stages in the course of life. A child grows up to become an adult, gets married, raises a family, becomes old, and after death is mourned by his/her offspring. In Korea, the stages that an individual goes through in life and the accompanying changes in his/her social status have significant meaning. The confusion that is likely to follow such changes is taken in stride through a series of rites of passage that are collectively called Gwanhonsangje (coming-of-age, marriage, funeral, ancestor worship). | | A traditional Korean wedding ceremony |
|
In the Confucian society of traditional Korea, the coming-of-age rite signaled
that the individual was officially a responsible member of society. Marriage
reaffirmed the importance of the family as the basic unit of society. The funeral
rites to mourn the passing of a family member and to overcome the resulting
crisis in family life were austere and complex. The ancestral rite to pay homage
to the family's forebears was aimed at strengthening unity and harmony among
family members and relatives.
The Confucian coming-of-age rite, transforming a child into an adult, was simple.
For the boy, it consisted of tying his long hair into a topknot, and bestowing
a gat (traditional cylindrical Korean hat made of horsehair) on the boy's head.
The ceremony was performed when he reached his twentieth birthday. For the girl,
it involved rolling her braided hair into a chignon and fixing it with a long
ornamental hairpin called a binyeo when she reached her fifteenth birthday.
Among commoners, the rite, as sponsored by the village dure (farming cooperative),
tested the boy's physical strength by having him lift a designated rock. If
the boy proved his strength, he was considered worthy of his mettle, and thus
an adult.
Marriage in Korea was traditionally decided by the senior elders of the two
families, and the ceremony was performed in accordance with prescribed formalities:
once a matchmaker confirmed the agreement to marriage by both families, the
bridegroom's family sent to the bride's family a letter indicating the groom's
sajupalja ("four pillars," indicating the year, month, day, and hour of his
birth, which are presumed to determine his fate and fortune). The bride's family
decided on a wedding date and notified the other side, which was followed by
the groom's family sending the ceremonial wedding dress and gifts to the bride.
Unlike in China or Japan, the wedding ceremony in Korea is traditionally performed
at the bride's home. It begins with the groom presenting a pair of wooden geese
to the bride's family. The groom then exchanges bows with the bride, and shares
with her a drink of wine in a gourd dipper. After the ceremony, the newlyweds
usually spend two or three days with the bride's family (but the stay was known
to last as long as a year in some cases). Upon arriving at the groom's house,
the bride offers deep bows and gifts to the groom's parents and relatives, which
symbolize the beginning of her new life with her in-laws.
The traditional Korean wedding ceremony was a ceremony honoring one's ancestors
and a public display that the continuity of the family line was assured. The
family, which was created by the marriage, was considered the basis of social
life, and it was a social obligation of the partners to the marriage to lead
prolific and prosperous lives.
Meanwhile, the funeral rites to mourn the loss of a loved one were played out
in complex formalities and procedures in traditional Korea. During the Joseon
period when Confucianism took root as the guiding moral and ethical system,
funerals became particularly elaborate as an undertaking not limited to the
immediate family but extended to the entire clan. Much of this tradition is
still practiced today.
The purpose of a funeral service is to enable the bereaved family to overcome
the sense of loss and fear and to smooth the transition to daily life without
the deceased. The passing of one's parents is always particularly sad. For Koreans,
the funeral - including the monetary contributions to the deceased family and
the assigned duties and roles - symbolizes the full extent and nuances of the
family bonds.
Traditionally, mourning lasted for two years, following a strict protocol involving
a series of prayer rites interspersed during this period. The intervals between
the prayers, including the offering of food to the deceased and rites to conclude
the burial, would be lengthened over time until the end of the two years, the
principal mourners would doff their ceremonial garb and other tokens of bereavement
and return to their normal daily lives.
The various steps and rites that make up a complete funeral and period of mourning
are as follows:
1. Chojong (initial departing):
Preparations
are made for the hour of death and immediately thereafter. The family discusses
such matters as invocation of the spirit of the deceased, dressing the corpse,
assignment of roles and preparation of the casket. As death nears, a piece of
cotton is placed on the nose of the dying body, to determine the moment breathing
ceases. When the breathing stops, gok, the ceremonial wailing begins. The deceased
is undressed, and the clothes are taken to the roof of the house, where the
outer garment is waved toward the north, and the name of the deceased is called
out three times.
The garments are then collected in a basket and placed next to the spot where
the tablets of the family's ancestors are kept. A folding screen curtain is
drawn around the deceased. The corpse is placed on a board with the head pointing
south. The mouth is left open, and the feet are straightened and fixed to a
wooden board. Meanwhile, a table of food is prepared for the messenger from
the other world.
2. Seup (cleansing the corpse):
The corpse is washed and dressed. The fingernails and toenails are clipped,
and the hair neatly combed. The loose strands of hair and nail clippings are
kept in a small pouch. The undergarments go on first, followed by the socks.
Rice is fed into the mouth three times, along with three pieces each of money
and beads. After the eyes are covered, the ears stuffed, and a band tied around
the waist, the hands are wrapped and a sheet is placed over the corpse.
3. Soryeom (wrapping the corpse):
The day after seup is performed, the outer clothing and a cover with which to
wrap the corpse is laid out. The upper garment goes on first, followed by the
lower one. The other pieces are added on to form a square, which is followed
by the final cover.
4. Daeryeom (placing the corpse in the coffin):
Before placing the corpse in the coffin, ash is sprinkled on the bottom of the
coffin. A thin board with seven holes standing for the seven stars that make
up the Big Dipper is put in place, followed by a mattress. The corpse is set
in place, with empty space being filled with old clothing of the deceased. The
coffin is shut and fixed with nails, and then covered with the final wrapping.
5. Seongbok (dressing oneself):
There is a set of procedures the immediate family and close relatives must follow
in wearing their mourning clothing. It includes the duration for which the clothing
must be worn: three years, one year, nine months, five months, or three months
depending on one's relation to the deceased. The practice calls for up to the
third cousins of the deceased to dress for mourning. Once everyone is dressed,
the principal mourner, typically the eldest son of the deceased, offers a prayer
to indicate that all have gathered.
6. Josang (visitors paying homage):
Visitors come to express their condolences to the bereaved family. At this time,
when the principal mourner wails, the visitor is expected to do the same before
the altar of the spirit of the deceased. He then bows twice before dismissing
himself. An exchange of bows with the principal mourner completes the act of
paying homage.
7. Munsang (hearing of death):
Sometimes the principal mourner is away when a death in the family occurs. If
it is the death of a parent, he must first wail, change his clothes and start
out on the trip home. During the journey, and when home finally appears in his
sight, he may wail again. Upon arriving home, he bows twice before the deceased.
After changing into his mourning garb, he wails again.
8. Chijang (preparing the grave site):
Once the grave site is determined, the hollow must be dug and the tablet prepared.
9. Cheongu (removing the corpse):
The corpse, which is carried to the ancestral shrine, is symbolically reported
to the ancestors, and then brought back to the house and placed at the center
of the open space.
10. Barin (starting of funeral procession):
The corpse is removed from the house and placed on the funeral bier. Before
the procession starts, a ceremony is performed. When the bier passes by the
home of a friend of the deceased, the friend is expected to stop the procession
and offer a noje (street rite).
11. Geummyo (arrival at the grave site):
This refers to the process from the arrival of the procession at the grave site
to the burial of the corpse.
12. Bangok (wailing upon return):
Upon returning home from the grave site with the tablet, the mourners wail again.
13. Uje (rites to console the deceased):
To comfort the spirit of the deceased, which may be wandering around aimlessly
after the burial of the body, sacrificial rites are performed three times.
14. Jolgok (end of wailing):
The day after the third Uje, about 100 days after the death, a ceremony is performed
to mark the formal end of wailing.
15. Buje (placing the tablet):
The tablet of the deceased is placed along with those of his/her ancestors.
16. Sosang (small service):
This memorial rite is held thirteen months after the death, to mark the first
anniversary.
17. Daesang (large service):
This memorial rite is held twenty-five months after the death, to mark the second
anniversary.
18. Damje:
This memorial rite is held two months after Daesang.
19. Gilje (good rite):
This memorial rite is held in the month following Damje.
In addition to these elaborate funeral rites, Koreans have handed down a rich tradition
of ancestral memorial rites through numerous rituals that honor the spirits
of their ancestors and seek their blessings for the living descendants. The
rites provide a connection between the dead and the living. Unlike the people
of the West, Koreans of old believed that the world after death is not entirely
separate from the present world but exists on the same continuum. To worship
one's ancestors, and to give them continuity in life through offspring was considered
the primary responsibility of filial children. To this day, devout Confucianists
offer services for their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, and great-great-grandparents
on the anniversaries of their deaths. In addition, the ancestors are offered
a darye (tea rite) on the morning of folk holidays such as the Lunar New Year's
Day. They are also offered a sije (time rite) at their grave sites. It is sometimes
said that these rites breed clannishness and exclusivity; however, they also
nurture intergenerational bonding and pride.