Introduction

In Korea, as in China or Japan, calligraphy has long been considered an important form of art. Korean calligraphy derives from the written form of the Chinese language, in which each character is composed of a number of differently shaped strokes within an imaginary square and is intended to convey a specific meaning. Koreans have used Chinese characters for writing since around the second or third century A.D., although their own language is of an entirely different system. Even after the invention of the Korean alphabet Han-geul in 1443, Chinese continued to be used as the official script until the late 19th century. Traditional Korean calligraphers wrote in Chinese rather than in Korean. Under the influence of Chinese culture, calligraphy was always closely connected with painting in Korea, and some believe that painting was influenced by calligraphy in terms of the vitality, rhythm, and economy of strokes. A calligraphic work would be hung on a wall like a painting and admired in the same way, each stroke being praised for its own attributes, the ink for its tone, and the whole composition for its strength, individuality, vitality and so on. A piece of fine calligraphy is not a symmetrical arrangement of conventional shape but, rather, something like the coordinated movements of a skillfully choreographed dance-impulse, movement, momentary poise, and the interplay of active forces combining to form a balanced whole.

Technically speaking, the art of calligraphy depends on the skill and imagination of the writer to give interesting shape to his brush strokes and to compose beautiful structures from them. This is done without any retouching or shading and, most important of all, with well-balanced spaces between strokes. Such spacing is acquired only through years of practice and training. But dexterity of brushwork and cultivation of aesthetic sensitivity do not constitute the only elements essential to understanding the art of calligraphy. Among the classes of old Korea, the art was regarded as a necessary process of mental discipline for a cultured gentleman. The practical function of calligraphy as handwriting or a means of communication was often overshadowed by the philosophical implications attached to the act of executing it.

The fundamental inspiration of calligraphy, as in all other arts which flourished in ancient Korea, is nature. Each stroke in a character, even each dot, suggests the form of a natural object. Like the ancient Chinese masters, Korean calligraphers recognized that, just as every twig of a living tree is alive, every tiny stroke of a piece of fine calligraphy must be made to live. This is the very property of calligraphy that distinguishes its strokes from those in a printed word. Chinese ideograms have an abstract, pictorial quality which further adds to the visual attraction of calligraphy by permitting a writer of accomplished artistry to enjoy almost unlimited possibilities in expressing himself as would a great painter in his paintings.

Like the tools of a traditional ink-and-brush painter, the tools of a calligrapher are few: good ink, an ink stone, a good brush and good paper (some prefer silk). These items were called affectionately the "four stationery treasures" (or sometimes the four friends of a scholar. Great care was taken in selecting and maintaining them because they often served as a measure of the owner's aesthetic taste and eye for beauty.


Three Kingdoms Period

Most extant examples of calligraphy from the Three Kingdoms period are in the form of stele inscriptions. These are valuable as historical materials; moreover, the calligraphic style of the inscriptions provides important insights into the literary trends of the period.

Through interaction with China, Goguryeo was the first of the Three Kingdoms to develop a distinct culture. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Goguryeo kingdom overthrew the Four Han commanderies that had been founded on the Korean Peninsula. Goguryeo assimilated Chinese culture from the commanderies and developed into a strong nation by around the 5th century. King Gwanggaeto's stele, erected in A.D.414 in the old Goguryeo city of Chiban (presently in southern Manchuria) testifies to the nation's power at that time. Standing 6.38 meters high, the stele commemorates King Gwanggaeto (r. 391-413) who managed to significantly expand Goguryeo territory. On the stele inscription, the Western Han's simplified square style is used instead of the conventional script of the era. The alternating composition and bold strokes attest to the vibrant and progressive spirit of the Goguryeo people. There is also an inscription on the tomb of Moduru, a general during the reign of King Gwanggaeto. Its inscription was made in the conventional style with vibrant strokes. Another Goguryeo stele is found at Chungju in Chungcheongbuk-do province. Erected in the late-5th century during the reign of King Jangsu, the stone monument commemorates the acquisition of new territory under the Goguryeo policy of southern expansion. Inscribed in the square printed style (haeseo) then popular in China, the calligraphy also bears faint traces of the simplified square style (yeseo).

Baekje established an elegant art tradition based on Goguryeo culture and agricultural knowledge along with influence from China's Southern Dynasties. The confluence of these cultural traditions can be seen on King Muryeong's tomb-stone in Gongju and the Sataekjijeok stele erected in 654 in Buyeo. The former stands at the tomb of King Muryeong (r. 501-523) and his queen. During the king's reign, the Baekje kingdom had active cultural contact with China's Southern Dynasties. The inscription on the tomb stones was done in a soft, elegant style. The exquisite inscription on the Buyeo stele, on the other hand, commemorates the construction of a Buddha hall and stupa by the government minister Sataekjijeok.

In the mid-6th century, Silla, centered around the area of Gyeongju, began to expand as it gradually transformed from a tribal state to a nation. Numerous steles provide evidence of this process. Early steles were roughly hewed from stone, with awkward proportions and irregular inscriptions done in the archaic style. By the reign of King Jinheung (r. 540-576), steles commemorating royal tours were being erected in newly-acquired Silla territory. The inscriptions on these newer steles show a more advanced writing style. Examples include Hamgyeongnam-do province's Hwangchoryeong stele, the Maunnyeong stele and the stele on Mt. Bukhansan in Seoul. The calligraphy on these memorials follows the conventional haeseo (square printed style) of China's Southern Dynasties. In terms of construction, the steles were made by cutting a slab of rock so that all six sides are completely flat. A cap stone was used to cover the stele's top.



Unified Silla

As the heir to the classical culture of Silla as well as that of Baekje and Goguryeo, Unified Silla established an international form of art that incorporated elements introduced from Tang China. The square printed style (haeseo), chiefly modeled on Ou Yang-hsun's style, was introduced into the Korean Peninsula where it enjoyed great popularity. This new calligraphy style appeared on stone inscriptions ranging from royal tombs, grave stones, stupa steles, steles commemorating statue construction, stone sutra inscriptions, bell inscriptions and sarira container inscriptions. Wang Hsi-chih's running hand style (haengseo) was also popular at this time. The cursive or "grass style" (choseo) is also thought to have been in fashion.

Kim Saeng (711-?) is indisputably one of the most outstanding calligraphers from this era. Instead of using the delicate and lovely styles popularized by Wang Hsi-chih and Gu Yang-hsun, Kim developed a uniquely vibrant and fluid style of his own. For this achievement, he is often lauded as one of the great calligraphy masters of the East. Other famous Korean calligraphers from this time include Choe Chi-won, with his gentle interpretation of Ou Yang-hsun's style, and the monk Yeong-eop, who mastered Wang Hsi-chih's running-hand style.


Goryeo Period

During the Goryeo period, an elaborate, aristocratic style of art was developed based on Unified Silla's Buddhist culture. In the early Goryeo period, the calligraphy styles of Silla continued to be popular, but during the later period, Chinese styles were introduced, leading to the development of new forms. Calligraphy examples from this period come from epigraphic materials such as stupa steles and tomb stones. These stone memorials, along with numerous copies of sutras, allow researchers to understand the development of the period's calligraphy. In addition to these sources, the wooden printing blocks for the Tripitaka Koreana and the world's first movable type have survived to the present, providing scholars with ample knowledge of the period.

Among these materials, some of the best calligraphy examples are to be found on stupa monuments. Commemorating the life of famous monks, these steles were typically inscribed by famous calligraphers or men of letters. Based on the square printed style (haeseo) of the early Tang masters, the inscriptions show much originality. Famous calligraphers of the period include Yi Hwan-chu and An Min-hu (masters of the Ou Yang-hsun style), Jang Dan-yeol (master of both Ou Yang-hsun and Yu Si-nan styles) and Yi Won-bu (master of Yu Si-nan style). From around the mid-12th century, calligraphy based on the styles of the Tang master An Chen-jing or the Northern Song master Su Shih began to appear in Korea, particularly in the works of Yu Gong-gwon and Kim Won-bal. Following in the footsteps of the Unified Silla Kingdom, the running hand style (haengseo) continued to be primarily based on the Wang Hsi-chih's style. The monk Tanyeon (1069-1158), in particular, used Wang's style to develop a unique form of calligraphy with remarkable elegance and refinement. As a result, he is often praised as one of the great masters of the period.

After the late 13th century, a close political relationship developed between Korea and Yuan China. During this time, the style of the famous Yuan calligrapher Chao Meng-fu became highly popular. King Chungseon (r. 1308-1313) played an active role in this trend. During his stay in Yenjing, he built a library for scholars. He then invited Chao Meng-fu and other Yuan scholars along with Yi Je-hyeon (1287-1367) and leading Goryeo scholars to the place. One member of the Goryeo group, by the name of Yi Am (1297-1364), became famous for his calligraphy done in the Chao Meng-fu style.


Joseon Period

During the early Joseon period, Goryeo culture and artistic styles continued to exert a significant influence. Thus, Chao Meng-fu's style maintained its popularity, becoming a favorite among early Joseon masters. Yi Yong (Prince Anpyeong Daegun, 1418-1453), the third son of King Sejong, is one of the most famous calligraphers of the Chao school. In 1447, he wrote his most representative work, Mong-yu-dowon-gi (A Dream Visit to Peach Blossom Land), with calligraphy that is famous for its clarity and elegance. In addition to calligraphy, Yi had a talent for painting and music, and played a key role in art circles of the time. As a result, his calligraphy style had an extensive influence on both contemporary and subsequent writers. After this, refinements were made in Chao Meng-fu's style, as it gradually became deeply rooted in Joseon culture. From the mid-16th century, another group of writers devoted themselves to Wang Hsi-chih's style. This tradition was maintained by those connected with the royal house along with a number of conservative figures.

After the Toyotomi Hideyoshi invasions (1592-1598), there was a renewed sense of national independence. These ideological developments influenced the art world, leading to the creation of a uniquely Joseon style. Calligraphy also changed. By the early 17th century, a number of literati were already calling for a return to classical forms such as Wang Hsi-chih's style. These new thinkers criticized Chao Meng-fu's style of calligraphy as being concerned with only external beauty without any real depth. Leading scholars of the era such as Seong Su-chim (1493-1564) and Yi Hwang (1501-1570), by utilizing this classical style in their works, provided impetus for change.

Han Ho (1544-1605), styled Seokbong, was one of the representative calligraphers of this period. During the Japanese invasions, Seokbong was in charge of writing diplomatic correspondence with Ming China. His excellent calligraphy won high praise from the Chinese. Mastering Wang Hsi-chih's style, Seokbong developed his own unique style that came to be associated with his name. Lavishly supported by King Seonjo (r. 1568-1608), he wrote the Cheonjamun (Thousand Characters Text) under royal order in 1583. Carved onto wooden printing blocks, the text was published and distributed for use as a writing primer for children. Seokbong's style, characterized by meticulous composition and strong brush strokes, agreed well with Joseon's artistic sensibilities. Its influence extended to the royal house, the literati and diplomatic scribes. In the end, Seokbong's popularity encouraged the general movement (centered around Wang Hsi-chih) back to calligraphy styles of China's Wei and Jin kingdoms.

On the other hand, the 16th century saw the appearance of numerous masters of the cursive or grass style (choseo). Representative figures include Kim Gu, Kim In-hu, Hwang Gi-ro, Yang Sa-eon and Baek Gwang-hun. Each of these calligraphers uniquely interpreted the choseo style of China's Tang and Ming Dynasties. Among these figures, Hwang Gi-ro and Yang Sa-eon (1517-1584) had a significant influence on subsequent development of the choseo style.

Prior to the 17th century, the practical haeseo, haengseo and choseo styles were favored. The simplified square (yeseo) or seal character (jeonseo) styles, primarily used for decoration or formal purposes, had not developed significantly. However, there were a few calligraphers who developed unique versions of these styles, such as Heo Mok (1595-1682), who created a unique interpretation of seal characters, and Kim Su-jung (1624-1701), who is famous for his works in the simplified square style.

With the normalization of relations between Qing China and Joseon at the end of the 17th century, Joseon adopted classical calligraphy styles developed prior to the Ming Dynasty. Yet by the late 18th century, Qing styles were gradually introduced to Joseon where they served as a stimulus to Joseon calligraphy. Yun Sun (1680-1741), the most representative calligrapher of this period, brought together the best points of Korean and Chinese masters to create a diverse range of styles. He was particularly adept at the Mei-fo style of Northern Song. His disciple Yi Gwang-sa (1705-1777) set out to master the styles of China's Wei and Jin kingdoms. Yi also tried his hand at other forms including the seal characters (jeonseo) and simplified square style (yeseo) of the Qin and Han Dynasties. A progressive artist, Yi is famous for his work Seogyeol in which he gives calligraphy an academic basis. With his unique style, Yi also contributed to the popularization of calligraphy.

	Kim Jeong-hui (1768-1856).		Yi Yong (Prince Anpyeong Daegun, 1418-1453).
		Han Ho (1543-1605).		Kim Saeng (711-?).

During the reign of King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800), Joseon introduced from Qing China a new stream of the Chinese classical culture. This "northern learning" movement, centered around Gyujanggak (the royal library), also introduced philological and bibliographical studies. These new research techniques encouraged the study of epigraphic materials, and resulted in diverse experimentation with seal characters and the simplified square style calligraphy found on ancient steles. Kim Jeong-hui (1786-1856) was one of the leading Korean figures in this movement. A man of profound erudition and a highly refined aesthetic sense, Kim was the greatest calligrapher of the period. Taking a deep interest in the simplified square style of China's Han Dynasty, Kim developed a unique interpretation of this form, which came to be known as the Chusa style. Subsequent calligraphers admired Kim's innovative style, and it has been a major influence on the calligraphy of modern-day Korea.


Modern Period

The sudden introduction of Western culture from the late 19th century brought chaos to Korea's traditional value system. Art entered a period of crisis and calligraphy went into decline. At this time, many conservative scholars followed traditional Chinese styles, but some more internationally-oriented people used styles similar to contemporary Chinese calligraphy. Some members of the reformist faction adopted Japanese calligraphy styles's trend that became even more pronounced during the Japanese occupation (1910-1945).

After liberation in 1945, there was a broad-based movement to restore traditional cultural elements that had been wiped out by the Japanese. Efforts to revive Korean calligraphy at this time achieved considerable success. In 1949, the Daehan min-guk misul jeollamhoe (National Exhibition) was founded, and a special section was devoted to calligraphy. The annual event played a central role in the growth of Korean calligraphy. Recently, numerous calligraphy organizations have been established. International exchanges have been brisk these years among calligraphers of Korea, China, Japan and the Asian community in the United States with their common art based on Chinese characters.


Korean Letters Calligraphy

Following the dissemination of Han-geul by King Sejong in 1446, the new phonetic script was written in the xylographic style (panbonche) and transcription style (seosache). The first wood block prints of Han-geul texts were written in imitation of ancient seal script. The 1446 publication of Hunminjeong-eum (Correct Sounds to Instruct the People) used round strokes, but by the 1447 publication of Yongbi-eocheon-ga and the 1448 publication of Dongguk-jeong-un, the strokes had become angular. In a sense, this process can be said to parallel the change from seal characters to the simplified square style to render Chinese characters. During the reign of King Sejo, a calligraphy style reminiscent of the square printed style appeared. This style had an enormous influence on the eventual development of the transcription style which appeared during the 19th to 20th century. The transcription style, developed from letters and copied stories written by ladies of the royal court, became the model for the so-called gungche (palace style). In the xylographic style, Chinese characters were used with Han-geul. As a result, the Han-geul syllables had to occupy the same space as a Chinese character. In the court style, on the other hand, only Han-geul was used. Thus, the right-hand side of the syllable could be emphasized, and the shape of the leading consonant or silent sound distorted to fit the dimensions of the syllable combination. Like in Chinese character calligraphy, Han-geul calligraphers also developed standard, semi-cursive and cursive styles.

The Han-geul calligraphy tradition was significantly undermined by the Japanese occupation, but after liberation, it was renewed to its former glory by schools and the steadfast efforts of calligraphers. Even today, many calligraphers are experimenting with new styles of Han-geul in an attempt to further develop this important national heritage. In efforts to preserve and develop this artistic tradition, large institutions such as the National Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Arts and the Seoul Arts Center have major sections exclusively devoted to calligraphy.