Kimchi, an fermented food unique to Korea, originated from the natural environment and the traditional food making skills of Korea. Korean people were an agricultural people, and they maintained a diet consisting mainly of grain, with side dishes mostly vegetables. In winter, to maintain this diet, they devised ways to preserve vegetables. On the Korean Peninsula, wild green herbs that grow in the mountains and the fields as well as cultivated vegetables are used to make kimchi. Thanks to the weather of Korea, the vegetables are generally tender and have an excellent flavor. The distinct four seasons contribute to the wide variety of vegetables, but in winter they were more or less nonexistent; therefore Korean people needed the special wisdom of preserving techniques such as drying or salting.

It is relatively easy to dry vegetables, but it is difficult to get the fresh taste of vegetables when they are cooked. On the other hand, if they are salted, they become tender, retain their crunchiness, and are available for long storage. If vegetables and fish are salted in diluted salt water, the maturing process involving self enzymatic process and the fermenting process of halophilic bacteria produce amino acids and lactic acids. These foods are the precedents of kimchi and salted and fermented fish (jeotgal). The salt, through a dewatering process and osmosis, prevents most microorganisms from growing and helps the beneficial fermenting process. Amino acids and lactic acids fermentation not only contribute to the foods preservation but also make a fermented food with a great taste.

As we have seen, the origin of kimchi was salted vegetables, and it was for much of humanity in the way of food development. But its transformation from simple salting to fermentation is by no means an easy feat, but one that stands out in the world is history of food processing. Korea's kimchi, with its soaking of vegetables in brine and with all the spices and the salted and fermented fish plus the red chili pepper, has become an unique fermented food without equal in the world.



- Kimchi in ancient times (before A.D. 918)

Koreans have enjoyed vegetables for a long time. Considering the use of salt and the making of soybean paste and other fermented foods, it seems that in Korea kimchi was made even before the Samguk (Three Kingdoms) period from the 4th to the 7th century A.D.

The first records of early kimchi appear in Goguryeojeon of Weizdongyizhuan part in China's Sanguozhi (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms). In the book it says, the Goguryeo people are very good in making fermented foods such as wine, soybean paste and salted and fermented fish, which supports the belief that fermented foods were widely enjoyed at that time. In Korea's Samguksagi (History of theThree Kingdoms) it is written that King Sinmun (A.D. 683) gave presents, including soy sauce, soybean paste and salted and fermented fish to his bride's parents, so the use of fermented foods then is also proven. In Samgungnyusa (Memorabilia of Three Kingdoms) also appear salted vegetables and salted and fermented fish, but there is no evidence of a desalting process nor the seasonings with which kimchi is made today.

The types of kimchi made in the early days included: those only salted and those dipped in paste, vinegar, grain gruel, or leftover grain from wineries. The vegetables used in early kimchi consisted of turnip, eggplant, gourd, wild leek, royal fern, bamboo shoots, deodeok (codonopsis lanceolata) and roots of Chinese bellflower. The pickling method used mainly is today's jangajji method, and it can be understood that even at that time there existed two groups of early kimchi, one being the jangajji group and the other the sikhae group (in which grains and vegetables are added to the main ingredient of salted fish, such as flounder, and allowed to ferment).

In Mireuksa Temple (founded around A.D. 600) site in Iksan, earthen jars dating from the Baekje period were excavated. They were large jars, some over a meter tall and were found near where Buddhist monks lived. Since they were large and found in good condition, it is highly possible that they were buried in the ground and used. These large jars are thought to have served the same purpose as today's gimjang jars: the winter storage of kimchi. These are the sole artifacts of early kimchi. There is a theory that a stone-made casket that was made in the Silla period (A.D. 553), and even today stands in Beopjusa Temple, was also used to store kimchi (This Jar is rebuilt in A.D. 720 due to fire damage). The storage of kimchi in such a container naturally leads to the origins of gimjang.


- Kimchi in the Goryeo period (A.D. 918-1392)

In the early Goryeo Dynasty the followers of Buddhism suppressed meat consumption, and vegetables were preferred. The vegetables used in kimchi became much more diverse: turnip, white radish, eggplant, cucumber, wild leek, watercress, royal fern, hollyhock, gourd, bracken, taro, garlic, bamboo shoots, white gourd, wild mustard leaves, lettuce, green onion and ginger roots. Also, juicy kimchi became popular, and the differentiation between juicy kimchi and plain kimchi occurred. Garnished kimchi also appeared, meaning kimchi now had garnishes such as garlic, and spices like Chinese pepper, ginger roots and tangerine peels added to the simple pickle-type kimchi.

In Gapoyugyeong of Donggukisanggukjip it is written that they dip the leaves of white radish in paste to prepare for summer and salt them to prepare for winter. This implies the differentiation between kimchi and the jangajji group. Also, in the phrase prepare for winter we can assume that the custom of gimjang had begun. The kimchi here is similar to today's juicy radish kimchi and juicy kimchis like nabakji and dongchimi.

In Yi Dal-chung's Sanchonjabyeong , which is a 14th century collection of poems, there is a verse saying I added water chestnuts to the yeogwi and made kimchi out of them, from which we can assume that wild herbs were used to enhance the taste of kimchi. In Yi Saek's Mogeunjip the word chimchae, the Chinese character form of kimchi, appears for the first time in history. Jangajji was also introduced for the first time in a book. In Yeji of Goryeosa , there is mention of such kimchis as geunjeo (watercress kimchi), gujeo (wild leek kimchi), cheongjeo (slightly desalinated juicy radish kimchi), and sunjeo (bamboo shoots kimchi). Since only the kimchis associated with the royal sacrificial rite are mentioned, the actual number of kimchis enjoyed by ordinary people must have been far more numerous.

In Goryeo society, the most common kimchis were probably simple, pickled ones consisting of the vegetables mentioned above. Secondary were the jangajji, nabakji, and the garnished kimchi. But there is no record of cabbage being used as the main ingredient of kimchi. In Hyangyakgugeupbang there is mention of cabbage as a sort of medicine, but since there is no record of cabbage kimchi, it can be concluded that cabbage kimchi were not popular at that time.


- Kimchi of the early Joseon period (A.D. 1392-1600)

In the early Joseon Dynasty, there was a renaissance of culture, a boom of agriculture, typography and astronomy as well as other industries. Thus, cultivated vegetables became much more abundant. Thanks to typography, books on agriculture could be distributed more widely and the methods of growing vegetables could easily be passed on. During this period many foreign vegetables were introduced to Korea and the ingredients became more varied. The methods of making kimchi progressed as well. In old recipes of this period, the main ingredients were turnip, radish, cucumber, eggplant, white gourd, wild mustard leaf, bamboo shoots and green onion. Also, pheasants were used to make kimchi, which means a type of kimchi with meat was being developed.

The kimchi in this period came in a wide variety, from the simple pickled type, jangajji, of earlier times to the singgeonji which was desalinated and then garnished, to the juicy nabakji which could be eaten instantly, and dongchimi, which is also juicy but needs time to ferment. When coloring the juicy kimchis, cockscomb and safflower were used to give a fine tint. During this period, the number of spices used in kimchi increased greatly, and the main ingredient was clearly differentiated from the secondary ingredients.


- Kimchi after the mid-Joseon period (after A.D. 1600)

In the latter half of the Joseon Dynasty and onwards, there was an unprecedented growth of trade, and as a result the growth of cash crops became active. Various traditional vegetables, fruits, horticultural byproducts and herbs were made popular and these became kimchi's main ingredients as well as secondary ones.

During the Joseon Dynasty many kinds of vegetables were introduced from other countries. Pumpkin, red chili pepper, sweet potato, white gourd, apple, and watermelon were a few. Red chili peppers, especially, brought about many changes, in the Korean diet. From the previously humble and fresh taste of kimchi, there came to be a more complex yet harmonious tasting kimchi as red chili pepper became one of the main ingredients. The number of vegetables used as main and secondary ingredients of kimchi widened as well. Records of red chili peppers were first found in Jibongyuseol , and their first use in kimchi was recorded in Sallimgyeongje . As red chili peppers were used in kimchi, many kinds of salted and fermented fish came to be used. The combined use of animal foods as well as vegetables in kimchi resulted in a great combination of taste and nutrition. The savory taste of kimchi was made even better.

It was also in this period that Korean cabbage and white radishes became the main ingredients of kimchi. The most popular kind, baechu tongkimchi (whole cabbage kimchi), resulted from plant breeding in the 19th century A.D., which meant the cabbages that were firmer and denser appeared. The ways of making kimchi became diversified, such as jangajji (simple pickling), mulkimchi (juicy), sobagi (stuffed), sokbakji (mixed), and so on. The kimchi making process was improved to incorporate two steps, which included the desalinating process.

Garnished kimchi was at its beginning stages in the late Goryeo period, a mere mixing of ingredients with the pickle-type kimchi of that time, but from this period the garnish in kimchi became of central importance. In Eumsikdimibang Chinese pepper is recorded to have been used in garlic kimchi, and it is also recorded that pheasant had been used with cucumber in saengchae kimchi.

In Jeungbosallimgyeongje , about 41 kinds of kimchi are listed, and thus it is an invaluable document in the history of kimchi. In this book the most popular kimchi of today, baechu tongkimchi (whole cabbage kimchi) appears under the name of sungjimchu, and it is worth noting that this kimchi had meat and fish as ingredients. Many other kimchis were introduced in written form for the first time in history. One is chonggak kimchi (ponytail radish kimchi) which was made with all its leaves. Ancestors of today's oisobagi (stuffed cucumber kimchi), sokbakji (radish and cabbage in mixed form), dongchimi (juicy radish kimchi) also made their first appearance.

In the book mentioned above, the kinds of kimchi that appear are quite varied. To name a few, there are suk kimchi (cooked kimchi for the elderly, considering their difficulty in eating hard foods), sikhae kimchi (vegetable, grains, and fish mixed and salted), jeotgal kimchi (using salted and fermented fish), chojeori kimchi (pickled in vinegar), and jjanji (simply salted). It is important to note that for the first time it was recorded that red chili peppers were used in kimchi. The book also shows a realistic picture of kimchi as it fermented, buried in the ground, stored tightly in jars, from which we can put together kimchi's past.

In Gyuhapchongseo , which is considered the first home encyclopedia of the Joseon Dynasty, sokbakji-type kimchi was introduced. It was produced with lots of ingredients with clear distinctions on which is main and which is secondary, and much of which was salted and fermented fish. Contrary to the methods of making kimchi up to that time, the process involved soaking the radishes and cabbages properly and then making the kimchi. For secondary ingredients small octopus, abalone, and turban shells were used. Salt-fermented fish such as yellow croaker, oysters and pilchard were used in season. Also mentioned were the new methods of using rusted coins and rice straw to prevent the cucumbers from yellowing.

In Imwonsimnyukji a wide variety of kimchi was introduced, and one interesting point was that the use of red chili peppers was recommended in kimchi. From this it can be inferred that they had discovered that the red chili peppers kept the vegetables fresh and played an important role in the fermenting process, and thus they were able to recommend its use. The origins of the same tongbaechu kimchi (whole cabbage kimchi) can be found in Siuijeonseo : written around A.D. 1800), and the origins of jang kimchi (kimchi soaked in paste) in Dongguksesigi : written in A.D 1849).

In this process, pickle-type kimchi from ancient times became jangajji, a separate group of food, and it has been enjoyed as a side dish since it became independent from the kimchi group in the mid-Joseon period.

Roots of the word Kimchi

The old Korean word meaning kimchi was "mihi" or "ai". Of the two, ai is still used to indicate a certain type of kimchi. In many books there were similar words like jeo that were used to point out that it was kimchi or similar thing. Jeo meant a type of kimchi that had salted vegetables and was allowed to ferment in rather cold places. In Imwonsimnyukji, which was written in the early 19th century, there are explanations of jeo as well as introductions of many types.

The word kimchi supposedly came from the Chinese word chimchae, or soaked vegetables; it must be kept in mind that Chinese characters were widely used to write things down (there were no written characters in Korean until King Sejong devised Hangeul in the 15th century A.D.). The word does not exist in China, so it must have been devised in Korea.

The origin of gimjang seems to be in the Chinese word chimjang.

In Donggukisanggukjip by Yi Gyu-bo , he mentions that the paste-soaked turnips pickles are good for summer and the salted turnips are eaten all during the winter, which hints of early gimjang practices. In volume 7 of Sambongjip it is written that there existed a Yeomulgo which was for processed vegetables.

In Joseonwangjosillok it states that in 1409 there was a separate chimjanggo for the storage of kimchi. From these we can see that there was an independent storage place for gimjang kimchi and that gimjang originated from chimjang.



Gimjang

Gimjang is an event in which a large amount of kimchi is made for the long winter. As can be witnessed by the Songs of October (note: lunar calendars are, on average, a month and a half later than the Gregorian calendar) in Nonggawollyeongga , gimjang kimchi is made to last from late autumn to early spring, when fresh vegetables become available. In the October part of Dongguksesigi it says the making of paste in summer and gimjang in winter are the two most important events that a household keeps, this is the importance of making kimchi and paste in Koreas food culture.

The time of gimjang and the way in which it is done differ according to the regions climate and traditions, but usually it was from Ipdong (beginning of winter, middle of November) to Soseol (around the 23rd of November by the solar calendar), but the radical difference of climate in Korea sometimes makes the gimjang time differ by even a month.

The peculiarities of gimjang also differ according to region, since traditions vary. In the cold northern parts of Korea, the seasoning is lightly added to the kimchi and the kimchi tends to be more juicy, so the resulting taste is mild and cool yet it retains the tangy taste of carbonated water (due to the gases produced during the fermenting process). On the contrary, the kimchi in the southern parts of Korea, if they are mild, ferment far too quickly due to the hot weather, so the kimchi in the south has a much stronger taste. The abundant use of salted and fermented fish and spices in southern kimchi therefore pursue the two goals : the deep taste and long preservation. Gimjang kimchis are made by different methods according to their various uses. Usually, they are eaten all during the winter and till the next spring, but some gimjang kimchis are meant for consumption till the next summer. The kimchi is made by combining cabbages and radishes with much salt and no other seasoning and burying them deep in a dark corner of the earth. This pickle-type kimchi has no seasoning, so the taste is quite mild, but it is quite salty. After desalinating it, it can be used in kimchi pancakes and the stuffing of kimchi wontons. Their white color makes them visually beautiful still on the table as well. This kimchi resembles the old, pickle-type early kimchi, and is used today.

Besides cabbages and radishes, many kinds of salted and fermented fish, fresh fish, and fresh vegetables are used as ingredients in gimjang kimchi. If only one of them is missing, it can still bring about the loss of the certain taste of kimchi, so choosing the ingredients must be done with utmost care. As with any food, good ingredients make good food, and it is no less so in kimchi.

The really cold weather sets in as gimjang starts. In the past, no matter how cold it was, gimjang was done outside. And this had some logic to it. As we have seen, gimjang requires almost perfection from choosing the ingredients to storage, and a sudden change of temperature can ruin the process, spoiling the kimchis taste as the fermenting process is interrupted.



The Storage of Kimchi

Kimchi represents processed vegetable foods for storage. Kimchi is not only a way of keeping vegetables a long time, it is also a fermented food that has a characteristic taste due to the actions of microorganisms that produce a unique flavor and some organic acids. Since Korea's weather changes quickly, the storage of kimchi caused quite a headache in the old days, as in winter when the lactic acid is not active kimchi was prone to freezing and in hot summer kimchi could become far too fermented in just a day.

Therefore, long before the age of refrigerators, Koreans thought up ways to keep kimchi at a relatively stable temperature in order to eat it for a long time. In the summer they put the kimchi jar in a well or a stream, and in winter they buried the jar in the ground, using the heat of the earth. The right storage was vital, especially in gimjang kimchi, and the jar was oftentimes insulated with rice straw. To prevent the kimchi from becoming rancid, kimchi was put tightly in the jar, leaving little space, and old leaves of cabbage or other vegetables used in the kimchi were put on the top of the kimchi in the jar to minimize direct contact with the air. Also, the juice of the kimchi did not rise above the leaves put on the top. Before kimchi was put in the jar, stems of red chili peppers, red chili pepper seeds, and mulberry paper were burned, so that the smoke would prevent the growth of unwanted microorganisms.

The jars differed according to the kind of kimchi and the season of their being eaten. Women chose among the different shapes according to different regions to best keep the kimchi. They even went as far as to take the season when the jar was made into consideration; some believed the elaborately made jars produced the best kimchi. The first jars made just after Usu (about the 18th of February) and Gyeongchip, when the earth melts, were considered the best, being able to keep the taste of kimchi for a long time.

It was because Korea had such wonderfully glazed pots that great fermented foods could be produced in Korea. What we could call the basic fermented foods of Korea - kimchi, soybean paste, soybean sauce, red chili pepper paste, salted and fermented fish, vinegar, and wines were all stored and matured in big pots called dok or in small pots called danji. These foods acted as seasonings in many foods and were themselves the main supplier of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Since the pots themselves allowed only a minute amount of gas particles to pass through, and not the air itself, the foods in them did not go bad easily even during long periods of storage. As we have said, the jars themselves provided the basis for the importance of the fermented foods such as kimchi, paste, and salted and fermented fish in our food culture.

The pots were introduced into our lives even before the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo and the Joseon Dynasties they came to be of the utmost importance in the everyday lives of Koreans. Their shapes and their patterns vary according to the region where they are made; the sizes also vary with some taller than a human.

In the Gangwon-do Province, lack of proper soil to make the pots caused people to use wood. The wooden jars were made out of willow, as it was considered a clean tree, and space was made by digging out the insides of the trunk of the tree. A support board was placed to make the jar stand firmly. Sometimes Korean paper with oil was pasted inside the jar to make it more waterproof. The wooden jars, although they were difficult to make, were light, easy to carry, and more durable since they did not break easily. They were widely used as substitutes for glazed pots.

People made a storehouse for kimchi in the backyard with logs arranged like tepees and rice straw put over it, resembling a dugout mud hut. Kimchi jars were placed inside. It was devised to keep snow and rain away and to be relatively consistent with the temperatures of the earth. The hut was usually made in the backyard, close to the kitchen.

Nowadays, it is much more popular to store kimchi in refrigerators than in jars or in storage places. Many Korean refrigerators are equipped with spaces reserved for storing kimchi. They are not big enough to store large amounts of kimchi, but since the amount of kimchi made is less, there does not seem to be much difficulty. As we can see from the above, the technique for storing kimchi has changed in the 20th century. New containers using state-of-the-art technology are being developed, and the amount of kimchi made has lessened due to the increase in the number of smaller families, the growth of the restaurant business, and the mass production of kimchi. Thus, the importance of the storage of kimchi is not as great a problem when kimchi is being bought at stores year-round, but it is sad to note that the tradition of eating well-fermented gimjang kimchi all during the winter and the sight of kimchi jars in the backyard are disappearing.



Local Kimchi

Korea has a subarctic climate zone, with the characteristics of both the arctic and tropical zones. In the winter the temperature can go down to below minus ten degrees centigrade, while in the summer it can go upwards to 30 degrees. Winter tends to be dry, and summer is very humid. The winter in the northern part of the peninsula is much longer than in the south. Such contrasts in the climate have led to the formation of many different climate zones in a country which is smaller than 220,000 square kilometers.

The cultivation of crops and vegetables and the techniques of processing marine products and fermented foods are not free from the influence of the natural environment, and this has resulted in the development of local cuisines with distinctive tastes.

Distinctive regional foods have developed all being influenced by the natural, historical, and social environments of the regions. Korea, with many climate zones, various topography and the conditions of the sea, and the rise and fall of many kingdoms in different regions, was able to give birth to a tradition of distinctive regional cooking in almost every region.

Gyeonggi-do Province - Glamorous and rich

Gyeonggi-do Province lies in the heart of the Korean Peninsula. The eastern and southern mountain areas are at the end of the Charyeong Mountains and many herbs can be found there. The western coast is abundant in sea products. The plains, named Gyeonggi, Gimpo and Pyeongtaek, are quite fertile, producing various crops. Crops such as rice, barley, peanuts, corn, herbs from the mountains and the plains, and cultivated vegetables and fruits such as pears, peaches, and grapes are abundant.

The food in Gaeseong has some luxurious and extravagant aspects remaining, since the city had been the capital of Goryeo. Seoul, which had been the capital of Joseon, has kept the royal culinary traditions passed on to the aristocrats and the middle class and has now distinguished itself for its regional cooking. The foods are somewhere in the middle, being neither salty nor hot, the serving portions small. The variety of dishes is numerous, and they all have high standards. The seasonings are used in small amounts, and they are carefully cut into small, fine pieces.

Seoul, being the capital of Joseon, has traces of the foods of the aristocratic class in many places. In kimchi, salted and fermented yellow croaker and baby shrimps are generally used, and the mild taste of baechupogi kimchi is famous. There are also jang kimchi made with soy sauce, gamdongjeotmu kimchi with very small shrimps, nabak kimchi, baek kimchi, ssam kimchi and oi kimchi.

The typical Gyeonggi-do province food tends to be glamourous and extravagant, since the region had been the center of trade. This includes susam nabakji, with ginseng, which is a local specialty of Gaeseong, misam kimchi, and ssam (wrapped) kimchi, Other kimchis are hobak yeolmu kimchi, bineul kimchi, Yongin oiji, sunmu kimchi, chae kimchi, sseumbagwi kimchi, pheasant kimchi, dongchimi, and baek kimchi.

Chungcheong-do Province - Mild and fresh

Chungcheong-do Province is located in the middle of Korea. This region has a relatively mild climate and fertile land, so it is suitable for farming. The Nonsan plain is one of Korea's three biggest rice growing areas, and many crops besides rice are abundant. The southern part of this province meets the Yellow Sea, so seafoods such as oysters, shrimp, hairtails, gray mullets, stingrays, yellow croaker and crabs are caught. The eoriguljeot (salted oysters with red chili pepper) of Ganwoldo Island and the saeujeot (salted and fermented small shrimps) are famous local specialties.

The northern part of this province does not face the sea, so seafoods are hard to obtain, but there are famous freshwater varieties like freshwater shrimp, freshwater eel and mandarine fish. In the central part of Chungcheong-do, mountain herbs and mushrooms are abundant, and many local foods are prepared with them. There, spices are used in small amounts and people can enjoy a mild and frugal taste. People use mainly salted and fermented baby shrimp, which are a local specialty, for salted and fermented fish. Gul kkakdugi, hobak kimchi, neulgeunhobak (pumpkin) kimchi, sokbakji, spinach kimchi, eggplant kimchi, and Dolnamul (Sedum) kimchi are popular in this region.

Gangwon-do Province - Frugal yet delicious

Gangwon-do Province is located on the eastern side of Korea. The northwestern part of it forms the border of Hwanghae-do Province and Hamgyeong-do province. Gangwon-do Province, with its borders facing many provinces, can be divided into two unofficial parts, Yeongseo (the western part) and Yeongdong (the eastern part). The western part produces crops like potatoes, corn, beans, and buckwheat. The eastern part has seafoods like pollack, squid and sea mustard, and also processed forms like dried Alaskan pollack, salted and fermented eggs from pollack, salted and fermented intestines of pollack, dried squid, and dried sea mustard. Acorn, arrowroot, and similar mountain herbs, and medicinal herbs give the kimchi a frugal yet delicious taste. Seafoods such as clams and anchovies are preferred to meats.

Cuttlefish and Alaskan pollack produced in the East Sea are widely used as ingredients for kimchi. Particularly well-known is sikhae, made with dried pollack mixed with grains and vegetables. Changnan (salted and fermented pollack innards), kkakdugi and dried squid mumallaengi (dried sliced radish) kimchi are also famous.

Jeolla-do Province - Intense and savoury

Jeolla-do Province is in the southwestern part of Korea. This province is abundant with all sorts of grains and seafood. The northern part of this region produces most of the grains in Korea. On the plateau between the Noryeong Mountains and the Sobaek Mountains, vegetables like ginseng, red chili peppers, medicinal herbs, mountain herbs, bracken and various mushrooms are produced. Since this area faces the sea, an abundance of seafoods from the cultivation of oysters, sea laver and sea mustard exist. High quality ginger, persimmons and citrons are also produced.

From past times, the well-to-do native aristocrats have lived affluently and inherited a variety of fine foods. Foods in this region are not only tasty, but also refined. As the climate is relatively mild, the kimchi's seasoning is strong; a hot pepper and pungent taste are conspicuous.

To cope with the warm weather of the southern region, spices such as red pepper powder and pickled sea foods are used in large quantities for the kimchi's proper storage. The various kinds of kimchi include godeulppaegi (a kind of lettuce) kimchi, gat (Indian mustard leaf) kimchi, and cabbage head kimchi, and they are normally prepared with pickled raw anchovies; by putting in sufficient amounts of spices, as well as a glutinous rice paste a rich taste is produced. Also, citrons, which are abundant in the region, are added to dongchimi (juicy radish kimchi) to make yuja (citron) dongchimi which has a distinctive citron flavor. The unique taste of godeulppaegi kimchi, or gat kimchi or parae (green laver) kimchi becomes remarkably better after the kimchis mature.

Gyeongsang-do Province - Strong and hot

Gyeongsang-do Province is situated in the southeastern part of Korea. The people there tend to have simple tastes rather than preferring a flavorful and a wide variety of foods. The kimchi is characterized by pickled sea foods such as pickled anchovy, hairtail or mackerel pike. There is also sesame-leaf kimchi, soy bean-leaf kimchi, leek kimchi, sliced green onion kimchi, persimmon kimchi, garlic stalk kimchi, crown daisy kimchi, and deodeok (codonopsis lanceolata) kimchi.

Hwanghae-do Province - Generous and delightful

Hwanghae-do Province is situated in the west-central part of the peninsula and is renowned for its hospitality; the food is characteristically plentiful. The kimchi is neither salty nor flat, but has a clear taste, and uses spices called gosu and bundi. The kimchi flavors are not too pungent nor refreshing. In preparing dongchimi, kimchi juice using pickled shrimps or salted croakers or fermented crushed fish is poured in to mature. During the winter, wheat noodles are eaten after putting them into dongchimi (a refreshing watery turnip kimchi). There is also dongchimi, gosu (a plant grow in that province) kimchi, and squash kimchi.

Pyeongan-do Province - Progressive and mild

Pyeongan-do Province is situated in the northwestern part of Korea. As it is cold in winter, fermentation of kimchi is slow, and it has a characteristically flat taste and is not pungent. Spices and other materials are not used much for kimchi so that its taste is light and flat, but its juice is refreshing. Dongchimi is prepared with meat soup made by boiling beef ribs and taking the fat out, and cold noodles, called naengmyeon, are eaten after putting them into the soup. There is also naengmyeon kimchi, eggplant kimchi, and dongchimi.

Hamgyeong-do Province - Bountiful and bold

Hamgyeong-do Province is located in the northeastern part of the peninsula, and it is the coldest and most remote region in Korea. Its kimchi has plenty of juice and tastes slightly flat as not much salt and little red pepper powder is used. Indigenous fish products are widely used. Flat-fish punch which is made by fermenting a mixture of vegetables, grain rice, and fish, is well-known. There is also bean sprout kimchi and codfish kkakdugi (pickled radish).

Jeju-do Province - Marine and varied


Jeju-do Province, the country's largest island, is situated southwest of the peninsula. As sea resources are abundant, a variety of sea food kimchis is produced. Abalone kimchi, mixed sea food kimchi and nabak (radish-cabbage water) kimchi are famous.

Thus, the regional nature inherent in kimchi comes from the combination of vegetables cultivated in distinctly different climates, the production of diverse pickled sea foods, and the temperature during fermentation.

Special Kimchi

- Kimchi in the Royal Palace

Royal culinary culture was developed and refined over the years from the ancient past to the recent Joseon Dynasty. It was the epitome of Korean food culture, as the best ingredients presented to the king as a tribute were used and, naturally, cooked by the best chefs. The chefs were divided into two groups, female and male. The female chefs, called jubangsanggung, managed the everyday meals of the king and the queen, whereas the male executive chefs, called daeryeongsuksu, specialized in the numerous feasts and banquets held in the royal palace. The food made in the palace was therefore very scientific and logical in the mixture of the ingredients and the use of seasonings.

With the absence of the royal family, the royal cuisine also vanished. But the tradition of marrying outside the royal family, contrary to European custom, allowed the foods of the palace to be passed on to the families of the aristocrats who were related to the royal family by marriage. Such influence on the foods of aristocratic families kept alive the foods from the royal palace.

The making of kimchi in the royal palace was basically the same as that of the Seoul area, but at the palace they were able to use the best ingredients. To give a unique flavor to dongchimi, they added citron, which was a rarity for ordinary people.

Seongnyu (pomegranate) kimchi, which is made by making slits in large radish blocks and stuffing them with seasonings, yuja (citron) dongchimi, tongbaechu kimchi (whole white cabbage kimchi), gamdongjeotmu kimchi, songsongi (royal name of kkakdugi) and jangkimchi, which were made by soaking them in old soy sauce instead of salt, are the most famous royal kimchis.

- Kimchi for Jesa (memorial service)

Jesa (memorial service) is a unique Korean tradition of remembering and paying tribute to the spirits of dead ancestors and invoking their blessings. In the ceremony, the foods are prepared and placed in particular places on the table. The kimchi used in the ceremony is usually nabak kimchi which is made with white radish.

The kimchis used in the memorial service are without exception all fresh, not yet fermented ones, and they have little juice in them. The contents are arranged so they stand up in the bowl to show courtesy. In baechu kimchi, only the middle parts of the cabbage are served, similar to those served the elderly. With nabak kimchi, which is rather juicy, vegetables without the juice are served.

The written records of kimchi for jesa can be found in the Wongujinseoljo part in the Yeji of Goryeosa and Goryeojo of Sejongsillok.

- Kimchi from the Buddhist temples

The importance of Buddhism can not be overlooked in Korea. Buddhism influenced virtually every part of the culture, including a considerable influence on Korea's foods. In Buddhism killing animals is strictly forbidden, and thus the food made in temples is strictly vegetarian. This tradition of avoiding meats has much to do with the development of many vegetarian recipes, and the tradition of making kimchi out of virtually any vegetable was probably related to this custom.

Buddhism was introduced into Korea in 372 B.C. from China. The Hinayana Buddhists have no food culture, since they practice religious mendicancy, but the Mahayana Buddhists make their own food at the temple and give it to the poor and needy as well.

The foods at Buddhist temples are not very different from the traditionally enjoyed foods of ordinary people. But each temple has unique cooking methods and the ingredients are mainly vegetables and herbs harvested from the mountains around the temples. In addition to animal foods, osinchae (the five hot vegetables: green onion, garlic, wild rocambole, wild leek and honggeo) and artificial additives are avoided. In the temples making foods is considered part of the ascetic practice.

Kimchi in temples is typically more varied and lighter in taste. The osinchae mentioned above are avoided in kimchi and no salted or fermented fish are used, since animal foods are thought to interrupt the thinking process by making one angry. Instead, various mountain herbs, herbs from the fields and cultivated vegetables are used. To supplement nutrition as well as to make the kimchi juice thicker, juiced pinenuts, juiced green perilla, juiced peanuts, steamed barley rice and boiled potato water are blended. This gives a peculiar taste to the kimchi as well as a lightness. In seasoning the kimchi, mainly salt, soy sauce, red chili pepper powder, ginger roots, and whole sesame seeds are used. Chinese pepper is used sparingly.

Yujeomsa Temple in Geumgangsan, Bohyeonsa Temple in Myohyangsan, and Daeheungsa Temple in Haenam are famous for dongchimi, the juice giving off a tangy taste like carbonated water. Godeulppaegi kimchi at Geumsansa Temple, minari (dropwort) kimchi at Seongnamsa Temple, and kkakdugi at Bongeunsa Temple are all famous Buddhist temple kimchi.

- Suk Kimchi (Kimchi for the elderly, Kimchi with filial piety)

Korea has long been called Dongbangyeuijiguk (The country of courteous people in the east). It is considered natural to honor the elderly, whether it be ones own parents or the neighbors. A good proof of this filial piety is the food designed especially for them.

Old age makes the teeth weak, and it becomes harder to eat hard foods. When preparing a meal for the elderly, this was taken into consideration. In the case of kimchi, there are special kimchis like suk kkakdugi and suk nabakji for the elderly. These are made by boiling the radishes slightly to make them soft and then seasoning them with red chili pepper powder and salted and fermented young shrimps. Often kimchi with much red pepper powder is too spicy for them, so sometimes they are served mild baek kimchi. Women in past times used to sleep embracing a jar of kimchi to serve kimchi properly fermented to the elderly. An admirable tradition of honoring the elders can be seen through these preparations.

- Jeong Kkakdugi (Kimchi for pregnant women)

The child bearing process and the actual delivery were traditionally considered the happiest event of the family. So when a woman got pregnant, utmost care was taken to see that the mother-to-be did everything, from everyday deeds to the way of talking and eating, in a most virtuous way. This was due to the old belief that the mothers thinking and behavior directly affected the fetus.

In the period of maternity, the shape and form of the food as well as the taste was considered. All the foods she ate were first-class, and this was also true with kimchi. In making baechu (cabbage) kimchi, much care was taken to the shape, and with kkakdugi, the radishes were cut into precise cubes, called jeong kkakdugi. Only kimchis with the straightest, and most even shapes were eaten, and here lay the wish that the child would have a straight and sound body and mind.



Tradition and Courtesy of Kimchi

Korea is traditionally an agricultural society, and social life was much valued, individual relations and love cherished. It was said that food tastes better eaten together rather than alone, and people said that sharing food easily brought people closer. People thought much of neighbors as well as family members, and they tried to make an abundant amount of food as possible to serve them.

As a people that valued etiquette, there were certain ways to eat the food: Manners and formality. For instance, one should not eat before the older people and should be careful not to make any sounds when eating. Leaving the place during a meal was considered impolite and too much talk was to be avoided, although light conversations were welcome. All the eating utensils, the spoon, chopsticks, rice bowl, soup bowl, plates and small dish for soy sauce had to be put in certain places on the table. The place of the dishes themselves was regulated according to a rule, with cold foods on the left side of the table and hot on the right.

In Sasojeol by the late Joseon scholar Yi Deok-mu, it is recorded that if kimchi was too big for a bite, the rest should be placed in the individual dish. Kimchi served to the elderly should be stood up, not down and the ends of the vegetables could not be served. In cabbage kimchi, only the middle part could be served to the elderly. On the individual table, as was standard in tradition, kimchi goes on the most upper part of the table, away from the person receiving the meal. There had to be at least two to three kinds of kimchi, including the juicy kind. With gruel or noodles as the main dish, the juicy kind of kimchi was a must.

Kimchi was used as a gift to the elderly to show filial piety. In the winter very good kimchi called gamdongjeotmu kimchi was given as gifts to the elderly in white porcelain jars along with homemade rice wine. Such courtesy is shown in more dramatic forms in the special kimchi in the coming chapters.



Utensils used in the preparation of kimchi

- Dark glazed pottery

Koreas pottery culture was developed to such an extent that Korea is called the country of ceramic ware or the country of jars and pots. Korea became known world wide as the leading nation for fermented food, only because there was this excellent storage utensil called glazed pottery from the early days. Koreas basic fermented foods such as kimchi, bean paste, soy sauce, red pepper paste, pickled sea foods, table vinegar, and rice wine were stored and matured in either big glazed pottery called dok or in small pottery called danji.

These stored and matured foods played the role of sweeteners to adjust the taste of food and also the role of the main nutritional food supplying protein, vitamins, and inorganic substances. Pots and jars were made in such a way that air can pass through and, thus, they breathe so that the fermented foods could be stored there for a long time without becoming sour or rotten. Such pottery functions provided a basis for our fermented foods of kimchi, sauce and pickled fish to occupy an important part in our dietary life.

Pottery was introduced to our life well before the period of the Three Kingdoms, and passing through the Goryeo and Joseon periods, became the most essential utensil for Korean dietary life. The looks, designs, and sizes differ by region. Among the receptascles made from baked soil, the Korean pot is the biggest in size in the world's history of pottery.

- Whole log kimchi pot from Gangwon-do Province

As Gangwon-do Province is a mountainous region, pots made from wood were remarkably well-developed. As the soil in Gangwon-do Province did not have the good quality necessary to bake pots, wood abundantly available was used to make pots. Mostly willow was used as it has no toxicity. The inside of a whole log was dug out to acquire space and then fixed with an under support. It was used as a pot immediately, or after pasting the inside with oil-soaked Korean paper to prevent the juice from leaking out. It was used widely as a substitute for glazed pots as it had the advantage of being light and easy to move, unbreakable, and durable.

Mortar for spices Mortar for spices: A big mortar is for pounding grains such as barley, but a small mortar is especially used for pounding spices such as a small quantity of sesame, garlic, and ginger.
Gourd bowl: An object to measure such spices as salt and red pepper powder.
Spice jar: A jar storing such spices as salt-mixed powdered sesame and red pepper powder.
Maja: A spice grinding utensil which has a hole through which a finger is put to grind the rough surface of spices.
Gangpan: A utensil used as a support in grinding spice.
Jabaegi: A deep round pottery bowl used for mixing salted cabbage or radish with spices.


The Ingredients for Kimchi and their Characteristics

The ingredients used in kimchi are numerous. The reason kimchi came to be an unique food not easily found in other countries is because a wide variety of vegetables and salted and fermented fish had been available.

The different flavors and textures of the vegetables provide kimchi with a unique taste. The enzymatic reaction of the microorganisms in different vegetables, seasonings and salted and fermented fish combined to affect the maturing of kimchi. Thus, the ingredients are the most important factor in making good kimchi.

The leaves, roots and fruits of the vegetables are used in a variety of ways according to the region and season. The seasonings are used to accent the taste of the other ingredients. The most commonly used ingredients are Korean cabbage and white radish, and vegetables such as cucumber, green onion, Indian mustard leaf, perilla leaf, dropwort, wild leek and ponytail radish are used as the main ingredients or seasoning.

The ingredients determine the speed of the fermentation process. The change of proportion of nutritional components is caused by the combination of the ingredients and the length of the maturing process. Of the secondary ingredients in kimchi, green onions, garlic and red chili peppers make the content of the lactic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid and carbon dioxide higher than using only cabbage and they affect much of the taste of the kimchi. Kimchi with garlic is high in carbon dioxide and alcohol and tastes better. Red chili peppers produce much lactic acid and also speed up the fermenting process. Too much ginger can cause browning of the ingredients, so it should be used sparingly.

The salted and fermented fish contain many sources of nitrogen like protein and amino acids. This accelerates the fermentation process, and, among them, baby shrimps speed it up more than anchovies. In doing gimjang, kimchi intended for long storage has more salt, and less salted and fermented fish and red chili pepper powder is put into it.

Cucumbers as a secondary ingredient accelerate the fermentation which is high in Vitamin B complex. Wild leeks are said to delay the souring of cucumber kimchi.