Classical Korean philosophy began during the Three Kingdoms
period, and with Mahayana thought, bloomed around the time of Silla's unification
of the Three Kingdoms. With the introduction of Chinese, all Three Kingdoms
actually studied Confucianism first; however the outstanding thinkers of the
period were initially Buddhists. In particular, Buddhist culture was a leading
force within the Silla and Baekje Kingdoms.
Confucianism and Buddhism have had a decisive influence on the minds and thoughts
of Koreans for at least 22 centuries. Both of these religious traditions have
profound, religious world-views and intricate doctrinal systems which form an
integrated whole. Consequently, neither of these systems could be introduced
piecemeal, and the doctrinal content of Confucianism and Buddhism in Korea therefore
did not change. In particular, the tradition of Neo-Confucianism (a philosophical
movement that appeared in Song China) was strictly maintained and developed
in Korea. For this reason, modern scholars have often criticized Joseon-period
Neo-Confucian thinkers as dogmatic and cliquish. This evaluation appears valid
if a particular thinker is seen in isolation, but if one considers all the great
Neo-Confucian thinkers who lived during the late-Goryeo and early-Joseon periods,
one realizes that this was a group of highly creative intellectuals. Even more
impressive is the series of great thinkers one encounters when studying the
long history of Korean Buddhist thinkers from the Three Kingdoms to the Joseon
period. In the sections below, we will look at such great thinkers, choosing
five from the Buddhist tradition and five from the Confucian tradition. Through
a brief examination of their thought, we will try to elucidate more precisely
the uniqueness of the Korean character as it is manifest within the context
of their respective traditions.
Buddhism
Compared with other religions, Buddhist
thought is oriented towards the practical. Its aim, at the individual
level, is to attain Buddhahood, and at the social level, to save living
beings. All measures used to achieve this goal are no more than "skillful
devices" to attain this end. The object of salvation, no matter what
it may be, falls within the category of living beings. Therefore, regardless
of what religion people believe in, they are nevertheless regarded as
an object of Buddhist salvation. In this way, Buddhism is inclusive
and tolerant, and Korean Buddhism is no exception. |
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Celebrating
Buddha's birthday. |
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Wonhyo (617-686) stands at the pinnacle of Korean intellectual history as a
thinker embodying the particular characteristics of Korean Buddhist thought.
Warning against doctrinal rigidity as well as the aristocratic monopoly on Buddhism,
he attempted to create a practical Buddhism that was oriented towards the common
people. At the same time, his work to systemize and integrate Buddhism's diverse
doctrines became a model for critical Buddhist research. As a part of his effort
to bring together all Buddhism's profound doctrines, he emphasized the teaching
that all phenomena are merely products of the mind. According to Wonhyo, if
one could merely awaken to the fact that all phenomena are produced from the
mind, all doctrinal disputes would become meaningless. For this reason, he felt
that doctrine and disputes were less important than the ideal of practice contained
within them. Wonhyo therefore emphasized the "harmonization of disputes," meaning
that one could only approach truth by putting a stop to conflict. In this way,
he demonstrated an intellectual attitude which sought to harmonize strict adherence
to doctrine with a practical orientation.
Uisang (625-702) firmly established the
Hwa-eom (Chinese "Huayen") ideal
of a Buddha land" in order to create solid foundations for the Unified Silla
Kingdom. According to
Hwa-eom doctrine, all things have their place within
the harmony of the universal order. If one awakens to this order, anguish and
contentions instantly disappear and the world is seen as full of harmony and
peace. The Buddha triad that represents the blessed
Hwa-eom realm is enshrined within the main hall of Buddhist temples.
Daeil Yeorae (Skt.
Mahavairocana) sits in the center as the symbol of the sun and light,
Gwaneum
Bosal (Skt. Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva) sits on the right as the representation
of compassion and
Munsu Bosal (Skt. Manjusri Bodhisattva) sits on the
left, as the symbol of wisdom. Due to Uisang's teachings, all of Korean came
to be thought of as a Buddha land and various areas came to be thought of as
sacred places in which
Gwaneum or
Munsu Bosal resided. In this
way, Uisang enlisted
Hwa-eom thought, with its optimistic and comprehensive
character, to establish organized Buddhism and provide a new vision for the
integrated society of Unified Silla. Even today, his teachings concerning
Gwaneum
Bosal continue to have an important influence on Buddhist practice.
Uicheon, a National Master during the Goryeo period, attempted to restore organized
Buddhism. In doing so, he hoped to reform the Buddhist order which had become
corrupt during the late-Silla and early-Goryeo period. During the latter part
of the Unified Silla period, a movement centered around the "Nine Mountains"
meditation schools led to a sudden expansion of
Seon (China 'Chan,' Japan
'Zen') Buddhism. Emphasizing personal cultivation,
Seon Buddhism rejected
the centralized control of the royal house and doctrinal orders and thus advanced
the trend towards regional power centers. Doctrinal Buddhism, on the other hand,
required massive funds from the royal house in order to publish Buddhist sutras
and written works.
Seon Buddhism's expansion thus intensified the decline of
the doctrinal orders. Uicheon, seeking to alter this dangerous trend, advocated
religious practice based on both doctrinal learning (
Gyo) and meditation
(
Seon). However Uicheon's approach actually amounted to just a superficial
acceptance of
Seon within the tradition of doctrinal studies. Uicheon
thus sought to unify Goryeo society by restoring the organization of Buddhism
around the royal house.
Jinul (1158-1210), unlike Uicheon, attempted to reform Buddhism from within
the
Seon sect. With the military coup of 1170, Korean society fell into
hopeless chaos and the Buddhist world likewise fell prey to ongoing power struggles.
In this troubled atmosphere, Jinul gathered together a group of seekers who
had renounced fame and profit and went to live a secluded life devoted to pure
religious cultivation. Since the group's practice included both meditation and
doctrinal studies, it was called the Samadhi and Brajna (Concentration and Wisdom)
Community. Thus, Jinul sought to reform the Buddhist world by developing a small
but ardent community of religious practitioners devoted to the dual cultivation
of
Seon (meditation) and
Gyo (doctrine). This small community,
with its strict commitment to religious practice, serves as a model for most
of the Korean
Seon school even today. After Jinul, Korean Buddhism actually
began to favor
Seon Buddhism, but still accepted doctrinal studies as
being in harmony with
Seon. Combining the comprehensive ideals of
Hwa-eom
thought with the strict practice of
Seon meditation, Jinul made the Korean
Seon school much more inclusive and integrated than its Chinese or Japanese
counterparts.
Both Uicheon and Jinul expounded philosophies that were primarily concerned
with the unification of
Seon and
Gyo, and both thinkers sought
to reform Buddhism from the standpoint of their particular historical surroundings.
With the advent of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the government adopted a
policy of oppressing Buddhism while promoting Confucianism. As a result, concern
shifted from reform to preservation of the Buddhist order. Due to this systematic
oppression, the Buddhist order radically decreased in size. By the time of the
Hideyoshi invasions in the late 16th century, Korean Buddhism had retreated
into the mountains where it existed totally outside of any institutional system.
As the traditional sectarian divisions ceased to exist, it fell into a state
of anarchy. Hyujeong (Grand Master Seosan) is the thinker who best epitomizes
the Buddhism of this period.
Hyujeong (1520-1604) emphatically claimed that the basic teachings of Confucianism,
Buddhism and Taoism were in agreement, and that
Seon and
Gyo were
mutually compatible. In particular, he claimed that since Confucianism and Buddhism
were mutually complementary, not only at the philosophical level, but at the
social level as well, the two teachings could function together to establish
social harmony. He claimed that the policy of Buddhist suppression was therefore
misguided, and thus sought public protection of the religion. By the Joseon
period, the doctrine of
Seon and
Gyo harmony was common. Hyujeong,
however, claimed that
Seon was superior to
Gyo, a position that
demonstrates how Joseon Buddhism had become associated exclusively with the
Seon school. Even so, Hyujeong continued to promote a syncretic Buddhism that
included doctrinal study. Thus, syncretism was a philosophical attitude that
even Hyujeong was unable to disregard.
In the section above, we have looked at five Buddhist thinkers who spanned more
than ten centuries, from the time of Wonhyo to the time of Hyujeong. Each of
them attempted to solve a problem particular to his era; yet they all sought
to reform Buddhism through a syncretic approach.
Confucianism
Although Confucianism was introduced to Korea before Buddhism, its ideological
flowering occurred later through the introduction of Neo-Confucianism during
the late-Goryeo and early-Joseon periods. For this reason, we will look at
five Confucian thinkers from the Joseon period.
Jeong Do-jeon (1342-1398), styled Sambong, was a thinker who played a central
role in overthrowing the Goryeo Dynasty and establishing the new Joseon Dynasty on the basis of Neo-Confucianism. In his teachings, he elucidated Confucian orthodoxy, claiming that Buddhism and Taoism stood outside of the Confucianism orthodoxy and were thereby heterodox. According to Jeong,
ri (principle) was the basic concept of Confucianism,
gi (material force) the basic concept of Taoism and mind, that of Buddhism. Since
gi and mind only operated based on
ri, they could not be used as a basis for philosophy. Jeong thus claimed that Taoism and Buddhism were one-sided and incomplete heterodoxies which should be abolished and replaced with orthodox Confucianism. In works such as
Joseon-gyeonggukjeon, Jeong advocated a reordering of society to accord with the times. As a reformer, he advocated social change based on enlightened government and Confucian orthodoxy. Through his efforts, Neo-Confucianism was established as the ideology of the newly formed Joseon Dynasty.
Gwon Geun (1352-1409, styled Yangchon)
was a scholar who, along with Jeong Do-jeon, established the Confucian
tradition of the Joseon Dynasty. He translated the "Four Books and
Three Classics" of the Confucian canon from the standpoint of Neo-Confucianism,
bringing classical studies to a new height. In his diagram Cheoninsimseong
habiljido, he clarified the concepts of Heaven, man, mind and
human nature, laying the foundation for Joseon Neo-Confucian thought.
Through his research on the classics, he developed Confucian orthodoxy
and through his theoretical studies, he prepared the philosophical
basis of Neo-Confucianism. In this sense, he served as a prominent
leader of Confucian studies of the period. |
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Daejonggyo
followers bow before Dan-gun's portrait. |
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Yi Hwang (1501-1570), styled Toegye, is the scholar who brought Joseon Neo-Confucianism
into full bloom. In
Seonghak sipdo (Ten Diagrams of Sagely Learning)
and numerous other writings, he propounded his doctrine that
ri and
gi arise in mutual correspondence. This theory touched off a vigorous
debate among Joseon Neo-Confucian scholars, which in the end led to extraordinary
developments in the school's doctrines. In terms of theory, Toegye propounded
the view that
ri was dominant. However, instead of stopping at mere
theory, he developed a practical teaching method aimed at personal cultivation.
Neo-Confucianism is often called, simply, the "study of the Way." With a teaching
that encompassed both theoretical reflections as well as practical cultivation,
Toegye can be said to have perfected this teaching. His Neo-Confucian thought
gathers the brilliant practical ideals lying within each theory and puts them
together to form a whole. In a sense, his theoretical doctrines form the starting
point of the study of the Way, while his doctrine of practical cultivation
represents its culmination. Thus, Toegye was not a fundamentalist or a dogmatist,
but was rather an intelligent advocate of piety who devoutly sought the practical
realization of his ideals.
Yi I (1536-1584, styled Yulgok), along with Toegye, was one of the two great
masters of Joseon Confucianism. Although Yulgok praised Toegye's philosophy,
he criticized many of its theoretical aspects. His numerous written works,
including
Seonghakjibyo (Compilation of the Essentials of Sagely Learning),
indicate diverse and extensive scholarly interests.
In Yulgok's thought, that which manifests is
gi and that by which it
is manifested is
ri. He thus emphasized that
ri and
gi
were an inseparable entity. According to his theory, when
gi becomes active,
ri ascends it so as to become a unity. The fact that Yulgok was able to apply this doctrine to the diverse aspects of his teaching while maintaining logical consistency demonstrates his brilliance as a thinker. His general theory is also related to his theory of government, in which he sets forth numerous programs for social reform. He is remembered as an outstanding intellectual of his time who worked to realize an ideal Confucian society.
The last figure we will look at is Jeong Yak-yong (1762-1836). Styled Dasan, he is a representative
Silhak scholar of the late 19th century.
Silhak (Practical Learning) is an ideology that sought to reform the institutionalized Neo-Confucianism of the Joseon period, and thus represents a liberal movement within the Confucian tradition. In order to put an end to the doctrinal disputes that had plagued Neo-Confucianism during the previous two centuries, Dasan felt that it was necessary to elucidate the central teaching of Confucianism. Thus, Dasan began a radical reinterpretation of the vast body of Confucian classics. Based on this work, Dasan penned an extensive collection of treatises on government, including his famous work
Mongminsimseo (On Leading the People). His theory of government focuses on assuring the livelihood of the people and the nation's legal system. For this reason, his practical philosophy rejected the Neo-Confucian obsession with metaphysics. Instead, it sought to resolve issues affecting the livelihood of the people while encouraging
good government capable of helping people during times of crisis. In this
sense, Dasan was a forward-looking thinker who sought to reform tradition
in response to the needs of the times.
The five Confucian thinkers discussed above all created monumental works that
helped define the history of Korean Confucianism. As can be seen, Joseon-era
Confucian scholars placed great importance on a pious fidelity to their tradition. For this reason, they had a very exclusive attitude towards other religions. In this light, they certainly appear to be self-righteous. Yet if we reach
a more comprehensive understanding of these five thinkers, we discover something quite different. Instead of clinging to Neo-Confucian dogma, they sought to elucidate the ideals of Neo-Confucianism according to their historical circumstances and reform the societies in which they lived. Understood within this context, they must not be seen as exclusive dogmatists, but as creative intellectuals.
In Korea, the representative Buddhist and Confucian thinkers were not interested
in theory for its own sake. Instead, they utilized their independent intellectual
abilities to elucidate religious ideals within the context of their unique
historical reality. This intellectual attitude has formed the basis of Korea's
ancient classical culture. From the Three Kingdoms through the Joseon period,
countless Buddhist and Confucian thinkers have left their legacy of refined
philosophical works as well as beautiful, practical examples of their search
for human ideals. For this reason, Korea, even more than China or Japan, has
been able to preserve Confucianism and Buddhism in their classical forms.
