In the cultural history of the world, the Korean people stand out as having created a brilliant tradition in printing. For example, woodblock printing began in the 8th century in Korea. The world's first metal typeface was developed by the Koreans more than 200 years before Gutenberg in Germany.


Long before the use of letters, human beings used various symbols and signs to communicate and to keep track of records. The engraved symbols and pictures on the surface of stones used by the primitive ancestors of Koreans can be seen in the stone carvings discovered in Cheonjeon-ri, Ulsan. After letters were introduced, transcription greatly enhanced the effectiveness of indirect communication. Engraved in stone or metal, the symbols and letters could withstand the erosion of thousands of years, and rubbings could be taken from them for the education of future generations.

After Buddhism was introduced to Korea in 372 during the Three Kingdoms period, transcription and engraving in stone or metal became a widespread practice to propagate the teachings of the Buddhist scriptures. The missionary zeal of the believers led to an enormous increase in the production of paper and ink-sticks. Thus, as early as the Three Kingdoms period, Koreans were transferring their knowledge in making paper and ink-sticks to Japan. They were also exporting their products to China, where the paper later came to be well known as Silla paper, Goryeo paper, or Joseon paper, depending on the different periods in Korea. In short, with the religious fervor of Buddhism providing the impetus, the necessary ingredients for the early development of printing-paper, ink, and the message were well in place during the Three Kingdoms period.

Historical records indicate that woodblock printing was being practiced in Korea at the beginning of the 8th century. A Buddhist scripture printed from woodblocks dating to the Silla period, was retrieved from Bulguksa Temple in Gyeongju. The title of the scripture is Mugujeonggwang daedaranigyeong (Pure Light Dharani Sutra). It is presumed to have been translated into Chinese characters by a monk named Mitasan around the year 704. One record also indicates that it was placed within the stone pagoda of Hwangboksa Temple in 706. Others place it as the scripture that inspired the construction of numerous pagodas in Japan. Since the pagoda at Bulguksa Temple from where the scripture was retrieved was built in 751, the scripture itself must have been printed well before that year. Though it is small, the print reveals the characteristics of early woodblock printing in Korea, and attests to the lofty heights in cultural accomplishments that the Korean people at the time reached. It remains the world's oldest printed material.

Meanwhile, Choe Chiwon, the great scholar of the Silla Kingdom, wrote in one of his many books that a collection of Silla poetry had been printed and sent to an envoy of Tang in China. The statement is testimony to the widespread use of printing during the Silla period.



Printing further developed during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392). Having adopted Buddhism as the state religion, numerous Buddhist temples were built, and printing was promoted as a way to disseminate Buddhist teachings during the Goryeo Dynasty. Of them, the oldest remaining text is Bohyeop indaranigyeong, printed at Chongjisa Temple in 1007. It shows the highly refined craftsmanship of Goryeo woodblock printers.

During the reign of Hyeonjong (1010-1031), the printing blocks for Chojodaejanggyeong (first trimmed Tripitaka) were carved (1011-1031). Later the blocks for Sokjanggyeong, a comprehensive collection of the studies and footnotes on the Tripitaka were also made (1091-1101). The blocks for both works were burned to ashes during the Mongol invasion in 1232. The King ordered them remade, even under the hardships of war, which took place between 1236 and 1251. The resulting masterpieces Tripitaka Koreana, have been preserved to this day at Haeinsa Temple in Hapcheon-gun, Gyeongsang-nam-do province and are the world's oldest remaining woodblocks for the Tripitaka. They are also the most accurate and comprehensive, used by the Chinese and Japanese as the standard reference in Buddhism studies. Printing flourished in other temples during the Goryeo Dynasty as well, churning out Buddhist scriptures, collections of poetry and essays by monks. Confucian teachings, medical treatises, historical writings, poetry and essays by noted scholars were also carved in wood for printing.

Goryeo Dynasty printing is noted for its invention of metal typeface. With woodblocks alone, the exploding demand for quality printed materials could not be fully met. The clever people of the Goryeo period overcame that challenge by inventing characters cast in metal. The exact date of the invention is difficult to identify. Some argue that it was during the 11th century; others say it was sometime during the 12th. One author writing on woodblocks in 1239 indicated that metal characters were around well before 1232. Furthermore, the famous scholar-official Yi Gyubo (1168-1241) wrote in his masterpiece Donggukisanggukjip (Collected Works of Minister Yi of Goryeo) that 28 copies of Sangjeongyemun (prescribed ritual texts) were printed with metal characters.

One of Goryeo's early metallograph works, Baekunhwasangchorok Buljo jikjisimcheyojeol or Jikjisimgyeong for short (the Selected Sermons of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters) printed at Heungdeoksa Temple in Cheongju in 1377, is kept at the French National Library in Paris. The book is proof that metal type was widely used during Goryeo. In the book Goryeosa (History of Goryeo), it is recorded that in 1392 King Gongyang gave the government office Seojeokwon (books and publications center) the responsibility of overseeing all matters related to casting metal types and printing books.

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), metal, wood, and even ceramic characters were used for printing. Metal types were also called Juja (cast characters) and were made of copper, zinc, iron, and other metals. The founder of the Joseon Dynasty, King Taejo, kept alive the operations of Goryeo's Seojeokwon. During the time of King Taejong, a separate casting office-Jujaso or type casting center- was established (1403). The printed materials consisted largely of books and documents deemed necessary by the government. They were distributed to the central and local administration, village schools, scholars and officials. For further distribution, woodblock printing was employed, as copies from metal types were limited.

The first set of metal characters made by the Jujaso during the Joseon Dynasty was the Gyemija characters, named after the year (1403) in which it came out. In 1420, it was refined into the Gyeongjaja characters. The third set, the Gabinja characters came out in 1434, King Sejong mobilized the efforts of the scholars and engineers of astronomical implements employed at his court to create the set. The result was a set far more exquisite than the previous ones, and it could print twice as many copies as the Gyeongjaja set. King Sejong also had his scholars and craftsmen develop printing characters for Hangeul, the Korean alphabet. The beauty and harmony of the printed Chinese and Korean characters attest to the preeminence of the Gabinja among all metal characters that were developed in Korea. Thus, the Joseon court had the set reproduced six times. In 1436, it produced the Byeongjinja, named after the year. They were the first soldered characters in the world.



Afterward, numerous other character sets were developed based on various styles of writing; however, most were destroyed or plundered during the Imjinwaeran (Japanese invasions of 1592-1598). When they retreated, the invaders took with them countless ceramic artisans and type-casting craftsmen, who later became the seeds for the flowering of printing in Japan. Amid the destruction of the war, it was difficult to secure the raw materials needed to make printing characters. But even then, the soldiers of Hullyeondogam (military training command of Joseon) printed books using wooden characters and sold them to raise money for the war efforts. The characters were known as the Hullyeondogamja, and they were used until efforts resumed to make metal characters.
King Kwanghaegun, the 15th monarch of Joseon, rebuilt the casting office and renamed it Jujadogam, and had it create the Muoja characters in 1618. That was followed by the Hyeonjong sillokja characters, intended specifically to print the history of King Hyeonjong's reign, as well as a number of other character sets. Altogether, during the Joseon period, some 40 metal character sets were created by the central government offices. Their names typically indicated the year in which they were made, the agency that made them or the individual who provided the prototype character forms.

Needless to say, local administrations, temples, villages and schoolhouses were also active in printing. In the local regions, wooden characters or blocks were largely employed.

Metal typography and printing flourished during the Joseon Dynasty, but the technique of woodblock printing inherited from Goryeo also continued. In early Joseon, Buddhism persevered among the royalty even in spite of the official anti-Buddhism policy of the new dynasty and provided the support for the continued printing of Buddhist scriptures. During King Sejo's time, Gangyeongdogam, a special printing office was established to translate and print Buddhist works. The influence of the royal court could be seen in the delicate engraving on the printing blocks.

But the largest portion of woodblock printing during the Joseon period took place at local government offices, temples, or village schoolhouses. Equipped with the necessary manpower and material resources, temples were particularly active in producing Buddhist scriptures as well as poetry and essay collections and even Confucian writings. They were the professional woodblock printers of the time.

Woodblock printing remained quite popular throughout the Joseon Dynasty, as there was no limit to the number of copies that could be made and the blocks were easy to keep. But as the centuries passed, the quality declined and the engraving became coarse.

It is noteworthy that misprints are hardly ever found in Korea's ancient books. This, however, is not surprising, since the system did not permit error. As indicated in Gyeonggukdaejeon (Grand Code for Managing the Nation) and other historical records, punishment of related workers was severe: for a single error found in an entire volume, everyone, from the top supervisor to the lowest level intern, was caned thirty times; five or more mistakes led to dismissal.

Indeed, the Joseon Dynasty developed a uniquely rich tradition in printing: for five centuries, the government took the lead in creating metal characters, local entities kept alive the tradition of woodblock printing, and great books of impeccable type were printed. Throughout world history, it is difficult to find a comparable example.

However, these days, Korea is an importer as far as printing and publications are concerned, despite the honor of having been the world's first user of metal type. There is a growing awareness that the glory of the past should be revived.