Social Order
The Confucian social order is based upon the five human relationships (
oryun)
and it is this concept that has long dictated Korean behavior to a large extent.
The importance of the Confucian social order in Korea can be observed especially
on New Year's Day when, after the usual memorial services for ancestors, family
members bow to grandparents, parents, older brothers, relatives, and so on in
accordance with age. Young people may even seek out the village elders to pay
their due respect by bowing to them, even though they are not related.
At meetings, social gatherings, or drinking parties, social order becomes an
immediate question: who should greet whom first, who should sit where, who should
sit down first, who should pour wine for whom first. Among close friends, those
born earlier are treated as elder brothers and sisters. Among acquaintances,
one is expected to use honorifics to those 10 years older than oneself. However,
if the difference is less than 10 years, people address one another as equals.
Social Relations
Under Confucianism, the proper relationship between the genders was also based
on one of the five human relationships,
oryun. This system does not aim
to subordinate women to men, but merely holds that both men and women have certain
separate duties to perform and a set of ethics to observe vis-a-vis the other.
In its practical application, this ideal, learned from an early age, affected
not just husband and wife, but virtually all relations between the genders.
From early childhood, children played and grew up segregated by gender as illustrated
in the adage: "Boys and girls at the age of seven should not be allowed to sit
in the same room."
The strict application of these rules resulted in severe restrictions on women,
while relative freedom was allowed for men. Women's behavior was dictated by
the law of the three obediences: obeisance to the father before marriage, to
the husband upon marriage, and to the son after the husband's death. Female
submission to male authority was not due to the perception of innate female
weakness or inadequacy; rather, it had to do with the strict separation of social
spheres in the organization of society. The woman's role was "within," that
is, within the home which was her domain to control. The man's role was "outside,"
and his concern was limited to the affairs of the state and life beyond the
confines of the home.
It was the woman's duty to care for the children, to help her husband with the
farm work, to prepare family meals, to make the family's clothes, and to create
an atmosphere of peace so as to better enable her husband to concentrate on
the larger issues of society. The female role was firmly established within
the confines of the home and women were expected to adhere strictly to that
role.
Although strict observance of Confucian-inspired ideals is now a rarity, Korean
men and women are still conscious of their positions as expressed not only in
their behavior but in their speech as well. Love and affection between man and
woman is rarely expressed openly, not even between husband and wife. Likewise,
just as there are special words and honorifics for use between family members
and friends, so there are a special set of words used just between husband and
wife as well.
Cooperative Organization
Gye, meaning agreement or bond, is a social organization based upon the
principle of mutual cooperation and aid with a specific objective. Although
there are many different types of
gye, all of them collect dues and manage funds.
One old type of
gye is the
wichin-gye, literally meaning
gye
for parents. This
gye is organized by those who have aged parents in order to
provide for their
hwan-gap or 60th birthday celebration. This is a special
celebration for Koreans as few people in the past lived to be 60. With the increased
longevity in recent years, the 70th birthday anniversary is also often observed.
Children must honor their parents at this time with a large party. As it usually
involves many guests, food and entertainment, it is quite costly. In order to
prepare for this expensive event, money or rice is collected, either monthly
or annually, to help each member to defray the cost of the celebration.
Traditionally, people prepared splendid funerals as expressions of their filial
piety, and these also tended to be costly. To prepare for a parent's funeral,
some people have formed a
sangjogye. In such a
gye, not only are
there monetary benefits, but
gye members also all pitch in to carry the
bier, to serve as messengers, to dig the grave, etc.
Weddings also are expensive events as they not only entail the exchange of gifts
and dowry, including bedding, furniture and household utensils, but also several
large parties to entertain guests. This is often more than one household can
afford so the
wedding gye is popular.
The
village gye is characterized by the admission of all villagers. It
collects an agreed-upon sum of money from each family and sometimes raises funds
through collective work such as "
dure" (cooperative farming). The
village
gye has no specific purpose other than helping villagers through unexpected
times of need or building and repairing facilities for the community.
Lately,
gye characterized by monetary interests are becoming very popular among
housewives in large cities as they not only provide extra cash but also opportunities
for getting together, exchanging gossip and partying. The conventional
gye,
however, is based on mutual aid and cooperation, with each member performing
his duties as if it were his own business. It is difficult to maintain a
gye;
if some members do not pay their dues or renege on their duties, the
gye
will eventually fall apart. As such, for a
gye work, solidarity is a
must.
Besides the
gye, there are other cooperative activities - rice transplanting,
the building of bridges and roads, the digging of wells, shamanistic rites,
etc. Whatever the case, people participate with a spirit of cooperation and
cheerfulness. The
dure farm work by collective labor appeared as far
back as the Silla Kingdom. In Silla villages, women and girls would gather on
moonlit nights in groups and compete in weaving.
With the development of the textile industry,
dure weaving disappeared,
but in rural areas the custom still exists and is associated with such tasks
as the transplanting of seedlings, weeding and rice harvesting. As this work
needs to be done quickly and within a certain time frame, village leaders must
prioritize projects and the composition of the
dure. When the
dure
is underway, pennants and banners planted around the field to identify the work
area. Music, the rhythm aiding in the collective movements of the workers, usually
accompanies transplanting and weeding. Going to and from the fields is accompanied
by much singing and often a farmers' band.
When the communal work is completed, the total man-days and amount of work are
calculated and payment is made by the landowners. With this payment, a sum of
money is added to the village welfare fund, and a certain amount is usually
set aside for a day of drinking and relaxing.
Some of these funds, as well as donations, may be used for the financing of
shamanistic rites as it is believed that certain gods control certain functions
of the community. It is most important that all villagers take part in these
rites, whether through actual performances or observance. In some ceremonies,
such as the rain rite, all the adults participate; in others, only selected
members of the community who are regarded as ritually clean perform the rites.
Highly illustrative of the Korean spirit of cooperation are games and dances,
such as
Ganggangsuwollae, mask dances, and tug of war, performed at festivals
and on special occasions. Another game is the Chajeonnori or "juggernaut battle,"
in which wooden vehicles are used for people to ride in and be pushed about.
The preparations that go into these events are extensive, particularly as much
labor is required to cut, carve and build the wooden vehicles.
|
A traditional folk
game called "Chajeonnori." |
|
Ganggangsuwollae, a
traditional circle dance, performed under the full moon to celebrate
Chuseok (the Harvest Moon Festival). |
Another popular event is the tug of war game, requiring the participation
of entire villages. Each village or township must make a straw rope of a
prescribed thickness and length. On the day of the contest, the team representatives,
sometimes numbering as many as a hundred, bring the rope to the chosen site.
All of the ropes are then connected and the tug of war begins. One side
of the rope is considered female and the other side male. It is hoped that
the female side will win as it is symbolic of a good harvest.
Although many of these customs are disappearing, or revived solely for their
recreational or aesthetic value, they are representative of the Korean people,
their customs and values.
Annual Customs
For thousands of years, Koreans have reckoned time according to the lunar
calendar. Contrary to common belief, the lunar calendar has always been
adjusted to correspond to the solar year by adding a whole lunar month,
to the lunar year twice every five years. This can be demonstrated by the
fact that the solar calendar is divided into 24 equal portions (or called
jeolgi) of which the equinoxes and solstices are used as fixed points.
Even before the solar calendar was introduced to Asia, the lunar calendar
recognized these jeol or seasonal nodes, as they are important dates for
agricultural communities. Give or take one or two days, these nodes fall
more or less on the same day by the solar calendar; this, however, is not
the case with the lunar calendar. The most important
jeolgi are of
course the equinoxes and solstices, but
ipchun (the advent of spring)
is given more weight than others because it is the first node of the year
and marks the approach of spring. Several special holidays are reckoned
by the lunar calendar even today.
The first day of the first month, New Year's Day, or
Seol, is one
of the biggest holidays of the year. On this day, people traditionally dress
their best, take off from work and gather with family to observe the ancestral
ceremonies. A feast is spread and the younger members of the family make
the New Year's bow to their elders. These youths then go around the neighborhood
to offer New Year's greetings to their older relatives and acquaintances.
|
Sebae, bowing to parents
and elders, is an age-old New Year's custom. |
|
Many Korean families
visit the ancestors' tombs to pay their homage in Chuseok. |
Another important date by the lunar calendar is
Chuseok, or the Harvest
Moon Festival, which falls on the 15th day of the eighth month, usually
in September or October by the solar calendar. As this date marks the harvest
time, it is celebrated as enthusiastically as New Year's Day.
There are a few other important days in the lunar year. The 15th day of
the first month is regarded as important since it is the first full moon
of the year. People crack various kinds of nuts and set off firecrackers
to exorcise harmful spirits, insects and animals. In the evening, a variety
of traditional games are played under the moonlight. Tug of war, stone fights
and mock fights with torches are a few examples of the games held between
neighboring villages. These are staged by youths and middle-aged men before
hundreds of spectators who come from far and near. These games are played
to win, and tradition has it that the winning village will be blessed with
bumper crops.
Some time during the second or third month is a day called
hansik.
This is the 105th day after the winter solstice, falling about the fifth
of April by the solar calendar. On this day, ancestor rites are performed
early in the morning when the whole family visits the tombs of their ancestors
to pay respects. This usually includes tidying up the tombs.
The fifth day of the fifth lunar month is called
dano, which is another
big holiday. According to ancient records, people on this day rested from
work, dressed up in their best, and feasted just as they did on New Year's
Day. Special events usually planned for the day include wrestling matches
for men in which the champion receives a bull as a prize. Likewise, women
participate in swinging competitions; the winner of this event goes home
with a gold ring.
|
Nong-ak, farmers' dance
and band music |
|
The tug-of-war is one
of Korea's most popular folk games. |
The 10th month is the time for
gimjang. During this month
kimchi
or pickled vegetables must be prepared for the upcoming three months of
winter. Every household was therefore busy preparing this important work.
A popular greeting during these time of year was "Have you finished
gimjang?"
The 12th month, called
seotdal, is a time when people traditionally
got their affairs in proper order, including the settling of debts, to prepare
for the new year. An honorable man is not supposed to carry his debts over
to the next year. Ancient records tell us that in the old days, the court
held exorcising ceremonies, called
narye, to expel evil spirits.
In rural areas, a musical performance of
nong-ak or farmers' music
is also used to expel evil spirits and usher in good fortune.
Another important event is Buddha's Birthday, which falls on the eighth day of
the fourth month of the lunar calendar, or April or May in the solar calendar.
Buddha's Birthday designated as a national holiday in 1975.
National and Public Holidays |
New Year's holiday |
January 1 |
Seol holidays |
Last day of 12th Moon through the second day of the First
Moon |
Independence Movement Day |
March 1 |
Buddha's Birthday |
Eighth day of the Fourth Moon |
Children's Day |
May 5 |
Memorial Day |
June 6 |
Constitution Day |
July 17 |
Liberation Day |
August 15 |
Chuseok holidays |
14th to 16th days of the Eighth Moon |
National Foundation Day |
October 3 |
Christmas |
December 25 |
|