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The son of a bankrupt, small building contractor, Booth was forced from childhood onward into a mean and lonely life. His one solace was religion. (McKinley:2)
Finding peace with religion, early in life, Booth began preaching as a Wesleyan Methodist and insisted that God's saving grace was equally accessable to all, a belief that was not easily accepted by the Anglican Church at the time. This stance on salvation coupled with Booth's volatile sermons resulted in his dismissal from the church. It is with this expulsion that Booth began to explore and develop his ministry.
Several authors mention varied influences over Booth influencing the development of the Salvation Army. Among the most referred to were the theology of John Wesley, the strong relationship Booth had with his wife, Catherine, and the theology of American Revivialism.
Concerning theology, McKinley states that Booth's Christian message found influence in John Wesley's Doctrine of Holiness:
This theology is posited on two basic premises: one, the absolute and inescapable necessity of conversion -- of accepting in faith that man is born under the power of original sin and can escape from its consequences only by accepting that the grace of Christ on the Cross alone is the sovereign cure -- and, two, that after conversion sinful tendencies remain, but that God offers His children a kind of perfection in grace whereby His love, and theirs for Him and for each other, purges the last traces of selfishness, self-will and pride. (McKinley:2)
According to Murdoch, the theology of American revivalists who made visits to England in the 1840's also influenced the Booths. Their appreciation for American revivalism stimulated early thoughts of a move to the United States because they felt their preaching would be more welcomed and successful than in England where the people of the time tended to resist alternative forms of Christianity. The Booths sought to create a Christian atmosphere not so constricting in character which would push people away. They wanted to appeal to the general, non-church going public.
Thus the pattern of Salvationist worship was set by the preaching service of nineteenth century revivalism. The one thing you had to avoid was 'churchiness.' For the church was felt to be a middle class, formal, snobbish affair, while the mission was a working-class, lively and loving concern. (Coutts: 68)
Beyond the abstract principles of theology, Catherine Booth "prudent, patient, kindhearted and senstitive, mother and tutor to seven remarkable children, and an efficient organizer of people and money" served as an important functional element in the creation of the Salvation Army. (McKinley: 3)
William and Catherine Booth did not start their ministry as co-founders of The Salvation Army but as two people dedicated to God. The Army, they believed, was His Army. They marched on through deprivation, desertion, world conflicts, theological disputes and materialism. They traveled light. Their gear was the Scriptures. Their banner was love. Their war cry was 'the world for God!' They were scorned and ridiculed, battered and imprisoned, but they believed their troops would march around the world, singing, advancing, and triumphing. (Chesham: 265)
The 35 year marriage of William and Catherine Booth was a nurturing relationship and several authors mention the great influence Catherine Booth contributed to the creation and success of the Salvation Army. Catherine, besides preoccupying her time with increasing women activities and vocalness within the context of the Christian message, believed in the protecting of souls from 'sinful ignorance.' With this end in mind, the Booths took on the responsibility of providing basic necessitities to those less fortunate.
There exists three theories on why the Booths adopted a charitable demeanor. McKinley states, that with the positive results from small charitable actions they randomly engaged in, the Booths decided to incorporate these charitable activities into their Christian objectives. Yet, according to Murdoch, urban, Irish-Roman Catholic resistance to Salvationist preaching forced Booth to convert to a social form of gospel he termed 'wholesale salvation.' (Murdoch, 1992:575)
Another theory given by Murdoch, since Booth's original intention to save London's 'heathen masses' did not prosper like his later evangelical outreach missions. Faced with stagnation, Booth decided to move outside of East London and into provincial English towns, areas that had already been exposed to other nonconformist evangelical groups. With a more 'open minded' populace, Booth's message received a warm welcome and his following grew. In fact, by the 1880's, the group had expanded into America, Australasia (Australia and New Zealand), Europe, India and Africa. Yet, growth only occured in Anglo-American towns, not the slums which was Booth's original target group. Thus, a social program , in the late 1880's, found incorporation into the group's objectives in order to accomodate this original intention.
Whatever the reasoning, the Army adopted charitable endeavors within their objectives. In 1878 the Christian Mission turned into the Salvation Army:
The Salvation Army was born...the "Great Salvation War" began to add piecemeal: church halls became corps, flags, ceremonials, military badges, ranks, brass bands and the rudiments of uniform and discipline," the Christian mission had transformed into an army -- The Salvation Army. (McKinley:4)
Immediately, William Booth reassured the readers of the Christian Mission's magazine that simply the name of the group had changed, nothing else. But with the increased development and growth, Booth found the need to integrate a rigid sectarian discipline within the Salvation Army. This more structured form of organizations resulted in tensions arose within the group between the old revivalist freedom and the newly acquired denominational discipline. This tension explains the fact that the Salvation Army grew, not out of directly sanctioned expansion, but rather from disenchanted members who had left the core and gone out on their own to start independent Salvation Armies. Yet, there were other members who left the Army and formed their own movements. For example, the National Commander from 1887 to 1896, resigned and formed the Volunteers of America.
The New Deed Poll of 1878 made William Booth General Superintendent for life. With power to nominate his successor, as well as sole trustee. Absolute monarchy had arrived. (Coutts: 22)
By the 1880's, the Army had evolved from a simple structured organization into one of an imperialist nature. Booth realized the combination of social programs for the "heathen masses" combined with the increasingly vocal working class would weaken the Army. Accordingly, Booth increased his militancy to keep his army from falling victim to more democratic times. This power structure, many argue, restrained the growth of the Army and created tensions:
"ensions that existed within the Army by 1888,
between its revivalists wing, which worked to build the kingdom of God,
and its social wing, which gave material succor to the poor to improve
the kingdom of man, exist to present. (Murdoch, epilogue pg. 171)
The Salvation Army became increasingly intertwined with an evolving world, thus, General Booth sought tighter control over the Salvation Army. McKinley notes that in July 1884, Booth issued a 'notarized statement' in the War Cry vesting control and protection of the organization solely to him. Additionally, all properties of the Army were to be 'conveyed to, and held by, the General.' Despite Booth's desire to shelter his Army from the outside world with a cloak of Christian militancy, the Army would not be immune from secular ideas and wealth.This flexibility in preaching and practice provided for the evolution of the worldwide movement in existence today.
O, America, how vast is your opportunity for making a lasting mark for good on the entire human race! What will you do with this mighty, magic force? If you are permitted to realize your ambition to lead the world, whither will you lead it?...In what country can I find the faith described in the Bible and set forth in the life of Jesus Christ? The answer will be America! Trumpets sound, troops line up, ammunition is readied. The Blood and Fire flag is raised. Born to Battle, The Salvation Army marches on. (Chesham:266)
As proclaimed by Evangeline Booth, the Salvationists had their sights set on America. Thus, on March 10, 1880, George Scott Railton, along with seven other Salvationists arrived from England via a streamliner at Castle Garden in New York City. Joined by the 'Splendid Seven,' Railton had set off to the United States with the intentions of spreading General Booth's Christian message beyond Britain.
According to McKinley, George Scott Railton had early Christian influence from his parents who served as Wesleyan Missionaries in Antigua. By the age of 19, Railton decided to begin his Christian preaching: "In 1868, at the age of 19, revolted by the tedium and the many small compromises that made up the daily life of business -- Railton was a clerk -- he resolved to lose himself in a larger cause: world evangelism." (McKinley: 1)
It is during this endeavor to spread God's word on a worldwide scale that Railton came across a pamphlet written by General Booth entitled How to Reach the Masses With the Gospel. Drawn into the word of Booth, it was perfect timing for Railton because Booth was in search of an assistant for his mission based in East London. Railton got the job and, according to McKinley, served loyally to William.
When Railton arrived in New York, in March 1880, along with the seven other Salvationists, their American success was due to their personal efforts and passions combined with the already established Shirley Family. Originally, the Shirley Family set out for the United States in search of a better life. First, Amos Shirley, the head of the Shirley Family, headed to the United States and solidified a job as a foreman with a firm located in Kensington, Philadelphia. Soon after, he sent for his wife, Annie, and daughter, Eliza. Arriving six months earlier, the Shirley Family had already established Salvationist Outpost in Philadelphia.
Eliza Shirley was an early convert, won by the fledging Army in 1878 at the age of sixteen. Her zeal for souls was sufficient preparation to enter work on a full-time basis; she was commissioned a lieutenant and sent to join the Great Crusade as an assistant officer during the period of rapid expansion.(McKinley: 6)
Eliza's character and demeanor, McKinley states, turned out to be an essential element in the establishment of the Salvation Army in the United States, an honor she is credited with. Eliza, along with both her parents, began optimistically, in their quest to serve the 'Christless masses of Philadelphia.' However, optimism quickly converted to disappointment with the lack of enthusiasm for their outdoor sermons on street corners was weak. The Shirley Family attempted to preach at various intersections that they thought most opportunistic for the ears of the 'churchless' to hear God's word. However, they faced insults and, at times, mud and garbage.
The turning point came when several street boys lit a fire in a barrel of tar in the lot in front of the abandoned chair factory that the Shirley Family had converted into a meeting hall for the Army:
Fire was a desperate threat in the crowded, wooden, gas-lit cities of the late nineteenth century; fear, along with the self important clang and bustle of fire engines, always drew large crowds to fires. The Shirleys were certain the fire was providential and threw themselves on the started crowd with thankful hearts and singing. (McKinley:8)
From that night on, the curiousity that had lured listeners to the fire sparked an interest in the words Amos Shirley preached. The crowd returned nightly to hear the preachings by Amos and collection baskets filled. The efforts of the Shirley Family paid off. The first roots of the Salvation Army in the United States were planted.
With the United States Salvation Army growing, Eliza requested General Booth to leave his position in Britain, come to the United States and take command over the newly established Army. However, Booth feared his absence in Britain would dramtically weaken and jeopardize the stability of the original Army. It is here, with the question of who to fill the post of commander of the U.S. Salvation Army that Railton found an opportunity to step up to assume the responsibility over the United States movement.
There existed two main factors placing Railton in the best position to assume responsibility over the United States Salvation Army. First, Railton was unbounded, mentally and geographically, when it dealt with the preaching of the Christian word. As McKinley states, Railton's passion for the Army ran deep and the possibility of the contributing to the success in the United States served only to fuel his intensity:
Railton was undeniably touched...by the fact that the 'War had broken out' in America as a consequence of the unconquerable, unalterable essence of its nature; it was 'like a plant of God's own sowing.' (McKinley:9)
Second, due to the adoption of the rigid military structure for the Army, Railton became increasingly displeased with his stagnant position in the hierarchy of the Army. With a move to the United States, Railton could secure a higher position of leadership within the Army.
Railton shared the belief with Catherine Booth of the need for more female leadership within the Army. Thus, they both decided to focus on women and the leadership roles of women within religious work. With that, Railton hand-picked seven 'sturdy, stable' women, also known as the Hallelujah Seven, to join him on his move to the United States.
The New Commander and the Hallelujah Seven arrived on March 10, 1880, on American soil. In New York, Railton touched many clergymen, Christian businessmen and ministers who in turn offered Railton the use of many churches to provide a venue for his preachings. Yet, Railton did not want to preach to people already involved within the church. Thus, he refused the offers posed and sought an atmosphere, a venue, where he could reach the 'untouched'.
When newspaper accounts of the landing brought an invitation from the enterprising Harry Hill, owner of a concert saloon, to 'do a turn' on Sunday -- which horrified the Fulton Street Churchmen -- Railton jumped at it...The audience was certain to be just the sort of people the Army was looking for. (McKinley: 13)
The act only touched a few souls, yet it seemed a few souls were better than none to the new movement. The unification of these few souls provided the feasibility, still characteristic of the Army today, of raising and collecting money for Army projects. Specifically at this time, the money raised allowed the Army to rent out a hall of their own. Thereafter, the Army's following increased with time. Economically, the Army began to generate funds to rent out other, halls located all over the city to showcase and spread their Christian word. However, with all the success, the Army faced another problem -- overcrowding. Railton planned to take the ministry back to the streets, but the mayor of the city opposed this idea and the Army relocated to Philadelphia.
On July 3, 1880, the pioneer of the War Cry, the Salvation News, was published containing various items related to the mission of the Army. In the following year, on January 15, 1881, the American version of the War Cry was published.
For more information on the American Experience, see: Lillian, Taiz, "Applying the Devil's Work in a Holy Cause: Working-class Popular Culture and the Salvation Army in the United States, 1879-1900," Religion and American Culture, Summer 1997 7/2:195-ff.
We believe in the old-fashioned salvation. We have not developed or improved into Universalism, Unitarianism , or Nothingarianism and we don't expect to. Ours is just the same Salvation taught in the Bible, preached by Luther and Wesley and Whitfield.(Coutts: 5)
Taiz highlights the perfectionism of John Wesley which provided influence for the Army's holiness theology. In the article, Taiz states that Booth believed that God could free all from the varied, negative forms and influences of sin. Thus, in the late 19th Century, the Salvation Army emphasized "profound personal experience of consecration, a filling with spiritual power and a dedication to arduous Christian service...The Holy Spirit would be poured out and the Gospel spread around the world. Christ would return this millenium age and would bring history to an end." (Taiz: 4)
As far as the theology of Whitfield, in his past, Whitfield had followed John Calvin and the doctrine of predestination. It was here, according to Coutts, that Booth supported two theologies that contradicted the other. According to predestination,
Combining Booth's Methodist background with the religious guidelines provided by these theologies, the Army drew up eleven beliefs constituting the Doctrine of the Salvation Army which a Salvationist must commit to:
All in all, these theologies and Booth's personal background and personal objectives, the Salvation Army articulated its original purpose in the Christian Mission's Report for 1878 which stated:
Today this statement is articulated a little differently, but the objectives and goals remain the same in the current mission statement.
Since God is all-powerful He must have foreordained, from all eternity, that some -- the elect -- shall be saved, and others --the reprobate--shall be lost. Hence it follows that Christ died for the elect, and only, and not for all, that God's grace must be irresistable, and that a believer, once converted, can never fall away from grace...Controversy on these points was so hot in the eighteenth century that Wesley said to the Calvinist Whitfield: 'Your God is my devil.' (Coutts: 6)
There follow 11 articles of faith, 28 less than the total professed, for example, by the church of England, but quite enough to discourage anyone who thinks a prospective Salvationist commits only to creedless benevolence...Indeed the articles are Methodism of the purest vintage, for the pioneers who rallied to William Booth in Eastern London were nearly all Methodists. (Coutts: 5)
We welcome every volunteer who is willing to assist the regular forces...arm...the whole population in the cause of Jesus Christ...The Christian Mission is...a Salvation Army.
The basic unit of all Salvation Army warfare and the key to its federation of services is the corps. Under the direction of an officer who adminsters both religious and welfare ativities, the corps is the center for a varied program which includes evangelistic campaigns, regular religious services, pastoral counseling, institutional and family visitation, character-building activities for you, and such social welfare programs as are dicated by the needs of the community (Chesham:259).
Concerning the People of the Salvation Army, they come from diverse backgrounds, yet they all share a common oath to the faith and practices of the Salvation Army known as the Articles of War.
The ethics of the Salvationists are therefore simply another attempt to reassert traditional Christian ethics based on the New Testament...at best they succeed in realizing the ideal of the soldier on active service -- equipped not to kill but to save...Salvationist ethics are therefore Christian ethics, teaching honesty, love, loyalty, moderation -- and thrift (Coutts: 36).
Chesham states, "Certainly through the years our methods have changed, but the motivation has remained the same." Today, these fundraising activities and youth programs have indeed evolved into large, international, financially stable programs aiding those less fortunate -- just as the General intended. Examples of established organizations of the Salvation Army include:
Total Amount of Revenue for Salvation Army Projects: 1.4 billion (Spencer: 10)
According to the 1997 data compiled about the Salvation Army, the vast amount of services and programs offered, membership and overall success are a vivid illustration of the continuing success of General Booth's vision of hope for the hopeless.
Salvation Army International Home Page.
This site provides information about the founding of the Salvation Army while, also, providing insight into current goals, ongoing projects and future endeavors. Additionally, the site provides a multitude of links ranging from country specific Salvation Army links to online forums where points of view on Christian charity can be shared and discussed.
http://www.salvationarmy.org/
The United States Salvation Army Home Page.
The official site of the Salvation Army based in the United States. Similiar to the international cite, site also provides the historical information of the Army. Yet, site provides information about specific goals, future projects and news events in the United States solely.
http://www.salvationarmyusa.org/home.html
Salvation Army Southern Region
The official Salvation Army website for the Southern Territory. site provides links to various divisions within the Southern Territory from Florida to Texas to Maryland. More specifically, the cite provides an informative listing of not only divisional headquarters, but a listing of the Salvation Army Adult Rehabilitation Centers and Thrift Stores located within the Southern Region.
http://www.rdgroup.com/nashville/southern.htm
War Cry!
site provides access to The War Cry!, an official publication of the Salvation Army, which serves as an educational tool employed by the Army to spread the Christian Word. This site provides access to the latest edition of The War Cry.
http://publications.salvationarmyusa.org/warcry/04.03.99/03Apr99wc.toc.htm
Young Salvationist
site provides access to the latest addition of the United States edition of theYoung Salvationist, another official Salvation Army publication. Similiarly intentioned in the spread of the Christian word, the main difference between The War Cry! and The Young Salvationist is the catering to a younger audience by YS.
http://publications.salvationarmyusa.org/youngsalvationist/Apr99YS/Apr99YStoc.htm
Other Online Publications
The availability of accessing the United Kingdom, Australian, Canadian and Bermudan versions of The War Cry is possible at site. Additionally, other United States versions of online publication sites are accessible such as The New Frontier, Southern Spirit, Good News, and Cyber Kids Alive.http://www.salvationarmy.org/news2.htm
Listing of Book Publications
site provides details concerning newly published Salvation Army oriented materials. Details include the a brief overview of the book's theme, biographical information on the author and information on the cost and ordering of the book. http://www.salvationarmy.org/pub.htm
William Booth
site, created by Thomas Hampson, is a composite of biographies of key individuals in American History that contributed to cultural movements influencing the American Song Saga. Hampson dedicates a two page summary of the early events of the Salvation Army in the United States during the late 19th century until the early 20th century.
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/ihas/icon/booth.html#1
William Booth
The two page cite dedicated to William Booth, created by Christian Word Ministries, found inspiration in the CWM objective to 'advance the Kingdom of God by proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus Christ' via providing support to world missions such as the Salvation Army. The cite covers general historical information of the early evolution of the Salvation Army in London.
http://www.evanwiggs.com/portrait/booth.html
Hotlinks to other areas
site, created by the Christian Hall of Fame based in Canton, Ohio, provides a short, one page history of solely on William Booth. Additionally, the cite has a painting of the General for those searching for a downloadable portrait.
http://www.chof.org/booth.htm
Other Links
site provides access to online purchasing of the '994 hymns and songs and 251 choruses used by The Salvation Army.
"http://www.wimall.com/21stcentury/songbook.html"
site provides access to a diversity of links such as geographically-oriented Salvation Army websites and links to the Gospel Communications Network, CCM magazine online and a Christian music catalog. Lastly, for the young websurfers, the cite provides three links to online publications specifically targeted for college to high school aged persons.
http://publications.salvationarmyusa.org/hotlinks.htm"
Created by Angelica Vargas
For Soc 257: New Religious Movements
Spring Term, 1999
University of Virginia
Last modified 07/24/01