Negative sentiments are typically implied when the concepts "cult" and "sect" are employed in popular discourse. Since the Religious Movements Homepage seeks to promote religious tolerance and appreciation of the positive benefits of pluralism and religious diversity in human cultures, we encourage the use of alternative concepts that do not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a more detailed discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the concepts "cult" and "sect," please visit our Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" page, where you will find additional links to related issues.
Most members are male. Traditionally, women have played a very minor
role in Rastafarianism. Until 1965, the membership was essentially lower
class, but this is no longer the case. Once considered "products of the
slum," the Rastas have now penetrated the middle class. At present, the
overwhelming majority of members are African, but there are also Chinese,
East Indians, Afro-Chinese, Afro-Jews, mulattoes, and a few whites. Rastafarians
are predominantly ex-Christians.
The original Rastas drew their inspiration from the philosphies of Marcus Mosiah Garvey
(1887-1940), who promoted the Universal Negro Improvement Association
(UNIA) in the 1920s. The organization's main goal was to unite black people
with their rightful homeland, Africa. Garvey believed that all black people
in the western world should return to Africa since they were all descended
from Africans. He preached that the European colonizers, having fragmented
the African continent, unfairly spread the African population throughout
the world. As a result, blacks were not able to organize themselves politically
or express themselves socially. Their intellect had been stunted by continuous
European oppression. Enslavement had provided blacks with a "slave mentality"
so that they had come to accept white racist definitions of themselves as
inferior. For Garvey, blacks in the Americas had not only been repressed
physically, but their minds had been affected by years of white subordination.
Slavery had degregaded them so badly that they actually considered themselves
as little more than slaves.
As a result, programs aimed at the gradual integration of blacks into white
society were worthless in Garvey's eyes. His mission was to restore the
lost dignity of blacks by severing ties with the white world. As he expressed
in the New York Times on August 3, 1920, "We shall organize the four
hundred million Negroes of the world into a vast organization to plant the
banner of freedom on the great continent of Africa... If Europe is for Europeans,
then Africa is for the black people of the world."
In 1930, Prince Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned the new Emperor of Ethiopia.
Upon his coronation, he claimed for himself the title of Emperor Haile Selassie (Power of the Trinity) I. This announcement
was a monumental event that many blacks in Africa and the Americas saw as
the fulfillment of Garvey's prophecy years before.
Although Leonard Howell has been proclaimed the first Rastafarian preacher
in Jamaica, there were at least three other Rastafarian groups in existence
during the 1930s. While each group exemplified a different style of worship
and emphasized distinctive aspects of the Rasta "doctrine," there were several
common themes uniting these factions. First, all four groups condemmed Jamaica's
colonial society. Second, all believed repatriation to Africa was the key
to overcoming oppression. Next, all of these groups advocated non-violence.
Finally, all four groups worshipped the divinity of Haile Selassie I. The
four early Rastafarian groups reflected the movement's history of diversification
and lack of centralized leadership.
In 1935, the Italian army invaded Ethiopia. This event drew widespread
attention to the incompetence of the Selassie Regime, which had left Ethiopia's
peasantry impoverished, uneducated, untrained in military service, and entirely
unprepared for war. Moreover, Jamaica's economic crisis continued to worsen.
Black workers, plagued by malnutrition and poor wages, turned to practical
action as opposed to religion as a form of resistance. Spurred on by these
developments, the Rastafarian movement became increasingly politicized.
During the 1940s and 1950s, leaders intensified their opposition to the
colonial state by defying the police and organizing illegal street marches.
By the mid-1950s, the Rastafarians were viewed by many in Jamaica as bearded
drug addicts, a national eyesore, or a "cult of outcasts."
Haile Selassie visited Jamaica on April 21, 1966, while the country was
amid an ongoing national social crisis in which Rastas were perceived by
the majority as a revolutionary threat that had to be defused. During this
first and final trip to Jamaica, Selassie met with several Rastafarian leaders.
The visit resulted in two profound developments within the Rastafarian movement.
First, Selassie convinced the Rastafarian brothers that they "should not
seek to immigrate to Ethiopia until they had liberated the people of Jamaica."
In 1968, Jamaican University lecturer Walter Rodney started the Black
Power Movement, which significantly influenced the development of Rastafarianism
in the Carribean. Black Power was a call for blacks to overthrow the capitalist
order that ensured white domination, and to redevelop their lifestyles in
the image of blacks. In Dominica, Grenada,
and Trinidad and Tobago, Rastafarians played a major role in
radical left-wing politics. In Jamaica, Rastafarian resistance was expressed
through a variety of cultural forms.
The Rastafarian image went through a significant transformation in the
1970s. Whereas in the 1960s Rastas were perceived negatively, in the 1970s
they became more of a positive cultural force, contributing to Jamaica's art and music (especially reggae). In the late 1970s, one reggae musician
in particular, Bob Marley, came to symbolize Rasta values and beliefs.
But, more than this, Marley played a catalytic role in the Rastafarian movement
worldwide. His popularity ensured a diverse audience for Rasta messages
and concepts, and his music captured the essence of Rasta ideologies.
On August 27, 1975, Haile Selassie died, and a tremendous crisis of faith
ensued.
Rastafarians came to the United States in large numbers as a result of
the general migration of Jamaicans in the 1970s. They brought with them
an image of violence, and frequent news reports detailed murders committed
by individuals identified as Rastafarians. Relations with the white culture
ever since have been tense, and mirrored the Rasta concept of "Dread," a
term used to describe the confrontation of people struggling to maintain
a denied racial selfhood. Most Rastafarians are pacifists, although a lot
of support for the movement developed out of intense anti-white sentiments.
In actuality, violence has been confined to individuals and loosely defined
groups. In fact, it has been suggested that Rastafarians are often viewed
negatively in the media because many young Jamaican-Americans have adopted
the outward appearance of Rastas without adopting Rastafarian beliefs and
lifestyles,
Since the 1980s, the Rastafarian movement has become increasingly secular. Many of the movement's symbols have lost their religious and ideological significance. Furthermore, the influence of Rasta ideology on Jamaica's urban youth has considerably declined. The Rasta colors (red, green, and gold), in which all Rastafarian banners and artifacts are painted, have been largely stripped of their ideological meaning and are now worn by all. Further, dreadlocks are now sported as a trendy hairstyle by both blacks and whites in Jamaica and abroad.
The loosening of Rastafari ideology has also led women to become increasingly
outspoken within the movement. Women traditionally had been forbidden to
play an important role in rituals; they were expected to show complete deference
to males. Previously, menstruating women were not allowed to cook, and in
certain areas Rastafarian women were secluded from social contact.
Rastafari is described as an acephalous movement. In other words, the religion
does not have a clearly defined leader. There are groups, quasi-groups,
and individuals who remain independent in spite of sharing the core beliefs.
Meetings generally begin as informal street gatherings which attract attention
and escalate into religious services. Except for two highly organized sects,
the Bobos and the Twelve Tribes of Israel, most brethren do not belong to
a formal organization. They refuse to surrender their freedom and autonomy
by joining any organization. This value of freedom from outward constraint
finds expression for the majority of Rastafari in an organization referred
to as the "House of Nyabinghi." This concept of "House" originated in the
1950s, when Rastafarians split themselves into two orders of Houses: The
House of Dreadlocks and the House of Combsomes, that is, those who comb
their hair. Since the 1960s the House of Combsomes have dissipated, leaving
only the House of Dreadlocks. Any dreadlocked Rastafari is entitled to participate
in the formal rituals and deliberations of the House.
The House is run by an "Assembly of Elders," theoretically consisting of
seventy-two members, but generally far fewer. Eldership has been summarized
as combining cunning and resourcefulness with initiative and trust, but
avoiding selfishness, arbitrariness, or conceit. One does not become an
Elder by appointment or election. The Elders oversee the affairs of the
House, such as planning liturgical events, settling disputes, or appointing
delegations as the need arises. However, beyond the Assembly of Elders,
there is no membership to specific Houses as such. All Rastas are free to
come or stay, to speak up or remain quiet, to contribute financially or
withhold dues. One retains membership to the House simply be being a Rastafari.
In turn, all members are equal, regardless of age, ability, or purpose.
Nonetheless, this loosely-defined structure makes a united, organized religious
movement virtually impossible.
The practicing of Rastafari faith is not as structured as most other world religions. The majority of worship occurs during rituals. Rastafari rituals are of two basic types: reasonings and the "binghi." The reasoning is an informal gathering at which a small group of brethren generally smoke the holy weed, ganja, and engage in discussion. He whose honor it is to light the pipe, or chalice, recites a short prayer while all other participants bow their heads. Once lit, the pipe is passed counter-clockwise around the circle, until all of the people have smoked. Reasoning ends when the participants one by one don their caps and depart.
The "nyabinghi," or "binghi" for short, is a dance held on special occasions
throughout the year. Generally, the celebration marks the coronation of
His Imperial Majesty (November 2nd), His majesty's ceremonial birthday (January
6th), His majesty's visit to Jamaica (April 25th), His majesty's personal
birthday (July 23rd), emancipation from slavery (August 1), and Marcus Garvey's
birthday (August 17th). The word "binghi" is believed to be of colonial
African origin, originally referring to a secret order vowed to bring "death
to Black and White oppressors." Today, these dances are purely ceremonial
celebrations and sometimes last for several days. In Jamaica, "binghis"
bring together hundreds of Rastafarians from all over Jamaica. They camp
in tents on land owned by the host Rastas. Formal dancing takes place at
night in a tabernacle especially set up for the occasion. The Rastas sing
and dance to their distinctive beat until the early hours of the morning.
In the daytime, they "rest and reason."
As Dr. E.E. Cashmore observed, "The belief system of Ras Tafari was so
vague and loosely defined, even at its inception, due to its lack of a single
authoritative voice, that what was to be acceptable doctrine was largely
matter of individual interpretation."
Babylon: "Babylon" is the Rastafarian term for
the white political power structure that has been holding the black race
down for centuries. In the past, Rastas claim that blacks were held down
physically by the shackles of slavery. In the present, Rastas feel that
blacks are still held down through poverty, illiteracy, inequality, and
trickery by the white man. The efforts of Rastafarianism is to attempt to
remind blacks of their heritage and have them stand up against this Babylon.
I and I: This concept has become "the most important theoretical
tool apart from the Babylonian conspiracy in the Rastafarian repertoire."
Jah: The Rastafarian name for God is Jah. The presence of Jah in
His children and in the world is the triumph over the tribulations of everyday
life.
Rastafarians have redefined language syntax in other ways, thereby giving impedance to larger logical constructs by redefining certain terminology. Specific examples within Rasta culture of this redefinition of language are:
- "Overstanding" replaces "understanding" to denote an enlightenment
which places one in a better position.
- "Irie" is a term used to denote acceptance, positive feelings, or to
describe something that is good.
- "Livication" is substituted for the word "dedication" because Rastas
associate ded-ication with death.
- "Downpression" is used in place of "oppression," the logic being that
the pressure is being applied from a position of power to put down the
victim.
- "Zion" is used to describe heaven or Ethiopia, in contradiction to the
generalized association of the term with European religious cults.
Also of significance to the Rastafarians...
Colors: The defining colors of the Rastafarian religion
are red, gold, and green. These colors were taken from the Garvey movement.
The color red symbolizes the blood that martyrs have shed in the history
of the Rastas. The yellow represents the wealth of the homeland. Green
represents the beauty and vegetation of Ethiopia, the promised land. Sometimes
black is used to represent the color of Africans, to whom 98% of the
Jamaicans are descended. Ganja (marijuana): Contrary to popular belief, pious Rastas
do not smoke marijuana recreationally, and some do not use it at all. Most
Rastafarian teachers, though, have advocated the controlled ritual smoking
of "wisdomweed" for religious reasons or to aid in meditation.
Lion: One of the most prominent symbols among the Rastafarians is
the lion. The lion represents Haile Selassie I, the Conquering Lion of Judah.
In Jamaica, it can be viewed on houses, flags, in their tabernacles, and
just about any other place where Rastafarians have connections. It even
appears in their artwork, in their songs, and in their poetry. The lion
represents not only the King of Kings, but the maleness of the movement.
The Rastas stimulate the spirit of the lion in the way that they wear their
dreadlocks and in the way that they walk. To the general public, the symbol
of the lion represents strength, knowledge, and aggression. Diet: The true Rastas eat only I-tal food. This is unique food because
it never touches chemicals and is completely natural. The food is cooked,
but served in the rawest form possible, without salts, preservatives, or
condiments. Devoted Rastafarians, therefore, are completely vegetarian.
Drinking preferences rest with anything that is herbal, such as tea. Liquor,
milk, coffee, and soft drinks are viewed as unnatural. The term I-tal food
is rapidly taking hold in Jamaica.
"... thou shalt eat the herb of the field." (Genesis 3:18)
"... eat every herb of the land." (Exodus 10:12)
"Better is a dinner of herb where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred
there with." (Proverbs 15:17)
"He causeth the grass for the cattle, and herb for the service of man."
(Psalms 104:14)
The Rastafarians by Dr. E.E. Cashmore
This is a very informative essay that outlines the Rasta experience, the
history of the movement, and provides an insight into the current status
of Rastafarians in modern society.
http://www.aros.net/~hempower/angels/him/rasta02.html
Rastafarians
Provides an overview of the movement and describes some of the current traditions
and rituals of Rastafarians. Also provides information on several sects
that have formed as a result of Rastafari influence.
http://www.africana.com/tt_010.htm
Rastafarianism: An Overview
Offers factual information on the religion with an emphasis on history,
doctrine, and Biblical responses to the Rastas' beliefs.
http://home.computer.net/~cya/cy00081.html
The Rastafarian Religion
Gives a very basic description of the principles underlying Rastafarianism.
Includes some decent graphics and an informative link describing dreadlocks.
http://www.aspects.net/~nick/religion.htm
Rastafarianism
Offers a very brief and concise overview of the history and influence of
the Rastafari people. Displays a graphic of Haile Selassie I.
http://www.kheper.auz.com/topics/religion/Rastafarianism.htm
The Rastafarian Religion
Very short summary of the Rastafari religion. Provides good links to more
information on Bob Marley, reggae music, and Haile Selassie I.
http://www.nd.edu/~theo/glossary/rastafarianism.html
Rastafari
Offers a summarized explanation of the general ideas of Rastafarianism.
Provides links for more information on Haile Selassie, marijuana, Rasta
literature, and reggae music.
http://swagga.com/rasta.htm
A Sketch of Rastafari History
Offers a detailed and scholarly description of the emergence of Ethiopian
churches in Jamaica. Attempts to explain Rasta traditions, practices, and
beliefs from an impartial perspective.
http://www.cc.utah.edu/~jmr08860/rasta1.html
The Phenomenal
Success of Rastafarianism as a Transforming Cultural Model
This book excerpt illustrates how a culture can be created in a relatively
brief period of time and depicts how such a movement can be attractive to
so many people, especially youth.
http://www.afrikan.net/fnx452.html
Note: Full references are found above. Page numbers for web sites were found by printing the information from the ULR of the links provided above, and then counting the number of pages.
Created by Kyle Littman
For Soc 257: New Religious Movements
Fall Term, 2000
University of Virginia
Last modified 05/10/01