I. Group Profile

1. Name: Masada (a Hebrew term meaning "fortress") refers to the religious movement of the first century C.E. as well as the site at which its participants lived and died. 1

2. Founder: The movement consisted of a group of persons known as Zealots ("Sicarii"), members of a Jewish faction that resisted Roman authority in the first century C.E. The Zealots were first led by Judas of Galilee and Zadok the priest, but the later Masada movement was led mainly by Eleazar ben Ya'ir. 2

3. Year Founded: The Zealots emerged as a faction in the first century C.E. The fortress at Masada was established by Jewish leader Johnathan between 167-142 B.C.E. King Herod then fortified the area as a personal refuge between 37-31 B.C.E, and the Zealots occupied it from 66-74 C.E. 3

4. Sacred or Revered Texts: The Masada community respected the sacred texts of Judaism (namely the Torah). Another text used as a source in respect to the Masada movement (although not considered sacred) is its only written history, The Jewish War , by Josephus Flavius. Archaeologists discovered several buried scrolls in the synagogue at Masada. They included Psalms 81-85 and Psalm 150, as well as the books of Leviticus, Deuteronomy, and Ezekiel. 4

5. Cult or Sect: Negative sentiments are typically implied when the concepts "cult" and "sect" are employed in popular discourse. Since the Religious Movements Homepage seeks to promote religious tolerance and appreciation of the positive benefits of pluralism and religious diversity in human cultures, we encourage the use of alternative concepts that do not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a more detailed discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the concepts "cult" and "sect," please visit our Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" page, where you will find additional links to related issues.

6. Size of Group: Approximately 960 men, women, and children died at Masada, and seven survived. 5

II. History

The Masada religious movement took place on top of a rock cliff to the west of the Judean Desert. The steep rock drops on one side 450 meters to the Dead Sea, and on the other side about 100 meters to ground level. To get to Masada, there were four difficult but feasible approaches: "the White Rock," west; "Snake Path," east; and two steep paths from the north and south of the rock. "Snake Path" is still utilized by tourists today. Between 37 and 31 B.C.E, Herod the Great (King of Judea) had the fortress of Masada built for his own personal refuge. The King built two palaces: the Northern Palace, which was three-tiered and highly decorative, and the official palace in the west. Several large storerooms were also constructed and filled with a food and water supply. It is easy to see why he chose this spot for protection from the many Jewish subjects who hated him, because the rock is isolated by deep gorges on all sides. 6

The events at Masada occurred due to tension between those defending traditional Jewish beliefs and the occupying forces of the Roman Empire. However, Jewish tradition was generally respected until Pontius Pilate came into control (26-36 C.E.). Pontius Pilate was a harsh ruler whose reign allowed the installation of pagan symbols in the holy city of Jerusalem, corrupt use of Temple funds, and the crucifixion of Jesus Christ around the year 30 C.E. 7 At this time, and indeed for the next several decades, many Jewish uprisings were put down. On August 28 of the year 70 C.E., the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem occurred. This event was extremely significant, and is still commemorated by Orthodox Jews by a day of fasting every August. 8 At this time, thousands of Jews became enslaved and had their property taken away. 9

According to Josephus Flavius, the only author whose manuscripts ( The Jewish War ) have been found concerning events at Masada, a group of about 1,000 Jewish men, women, and children (Zealots) reacted to their traumatic surroundings by fleeing to the fortress at Masada during the Revolt of the Jews. They found King Herod's buildings stocked with large quantities of food and weapons. 10

The Romans laid seige to the fortress for a long time before attempting to break through the barricades to reach the Jews. The Roman army, led by the Roman general Silva, set up military garrisons and built walls around Masada to ensure that no Jews escaped. Josephus writes that several destructive machines were used in the attack, including an iron tower from which the Romans threw darts and stones, and also a huge battering-ram. However, as soon as the battering-ram broke through a piece of the protective wall, the Jews quickly constructed an inner wall with a yielding factor that decreased the force of each blow. Silva reacted to this wooden interior wall by setting fire to them. According to Josephus, at this point the Romans retreated for the night and decided to enter Masada the next day. 11

Eleazar ben Ya'ir decided that, rather than submit to Roman authority, the Jews should burn the fortress and all die for their beliefs. He gave a monumental speech to several of his "most courageous" followers; some of them agreed with him about what they should do, while others felt concerned about their wives and children. To convince those who doubted him, he then gave another speech, this one concerning the immortality of true believers and true devotion and trust in God. The Jewish War states that some Jews even cut Eleazar's speech short to hurry along with their 'duties' of collective suicide. 12 These "Zealots" became zealous about their new resolution, and went through with the killings very courageously. Josephus strongly defended the brutal plan and actions of the Jews at Masada:

"Nor indeed, when they came to the work itself, did their courage fail them, as one might imagine it would have done; but they held fast to the same resolution, without wavering, which they had taken on hearing Eleazar's speech, while yet every one of them still retained his natural passion of love for himself and his family, because the reasoning they went upon appeared to them very just, even with regard to those dearest to them; for the husbands tenderly embraced their wives and took their children into their arms, and gave the longest parting kisses to them, with tears in their eyes. Yet at the same time they completed what they had resolved, as if they had been executed by the hands of strangers, and they had nothing else for their comfort but their necessity to carry out this execution in order to avoid that prospect of the miseries they were to suffer from their enemies." 13

The manner in which the Jews killed themselves was well organized and thought out. First, they laid out all of their possessions and set fire to it. Ten men were chosen by lot to kill everyone; they then drew lots again and one had to kill the other nine and finally kill himself. Before slaying himself with his own sword, he was to make sure that all of the others were actually dead, and also had to set fire to the palace. 14 Presumably this procedure eliminated the stigma of suicide for all but one person, and retained the honor of the other men by leading to the presumption that they would all have gone through with the same heroic feats had they drawn the last lot.

The plan at Masada was for every Jew there to die for the honor of their God and religious traditions; none were to be left to the beseiging Romans. However, an elderly woman, another woman who was related to Eleazar, and her five children, had hidden in underground caverns and so had avoided the slaughter. When the Romans entered the fortress in the morning, they heard nothing but silence. The women emerged from the cavern when the army officers shouted, and they told them what had occurred. The Romans didn't believe them at first, and tried to put out the fire and find their enemies. However, once they found the massive area of slain bodies, Josephus writes that they were not exultant even though they were the bodies of their enemies. 15 Even the Romans viewed the events at Masada with great respect; thus, it can be imagined how wonderfully these events are regarded by those who follow the same Jewish faith tradition even today.

Zealots may have died for their beliefs at Masada just as Josephus has recorded, or the tale may be twisted and tainted. (See Issues and Controversies section below). The important thing to realize is that Masada is and forever will be a sacred symbol of the stronghold of Jewish faith. This is significant not only in Jewish history, but also in the history of Christianity, which has its roots in Judaism. Christian rites and ceremonies such as the traditions of baptism, the celebration of the Last Supper, and the building of the New Testament onto the Jewish sacred texts all date back to Judaism. 16 Without the sacrifice and determination of so many early Jews, the history of the world would be drastically altered.

III. Beliefs

As a sect of Judaism, the Zealots revered the monotheistic God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They believed in a political Messiah who would rule Israel as ancient kings had. Their Jewish faith had deep roots in their ancestry and land; however, changes in the religious climate occurred with the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Even though Jesus had been raised in the Jewish faith, many Christians viewed Jews as those responsible for the crucifixion of their Savior, Jesus the Son of God. Thus, Jews became more and more persecuted as Christianity was on the rise among those in authority as well as among commoners. Those still waiting for the Messiah thus conflicted with the authority and religious traditions of the Roman Empire, and the Zealots rebelled to defend their beliefs. 17

While the beliefs of the Jews at Masada reflected those rooted in traditional Judaism, they also included a strong appeal to courage and bravery in the face of persecution. These beliefs, summed up in the speeches of Eleazer ben Ya'ir, explain what participants in the Masada movement believed to be their holy purpose:

"Brave and loyal followers! Long ago we resolved to serve neither the Romans nor anyone other than God Himself, who alone is the true and just Lord of mankind. The time has now come that bids us prove our determination by our deeds. At such a time we must not disgrace ourselves. Hitherto we have never submitted to slavery, even when it brought no danger with it. We must not choose slavery now, and with it penalties that will mean the end of everything if we fall alive into the hands of the Romans. For we were first to revolt, and shall be the last to break off the struggle. And I think it is God who has given us this privilege, that we can die nobly and as free men... In our case it is evident that day-break will end our resistance, but we are free to choose an honourable death with our loved ones. This our enemies cannot prevent, however earnestly they may pray to take us alive; nor can we defeat them in battle.

Let our wives die unabused, our children without knowledge of slavery. After that, let us do each other an ungrudging kindness, preserving our freedom as a glorious winding sheet. But first, let our possessions and the whole fortress go up in flames. It will be a bitter blow to the Romans, that I know, to find our persons beyond their reach and nothing left for them to loot. One thing only let us spare -- our store of food; it will bear witness when we are dead to the fact that we perished, not through want but because, as we resolved at the beginning, we chose death rather than slavery.

...After all, we were born to die, we and those we brought into the world. This even the luckiest man must face. But courage, slavery and the sight of our wives led away to shame with our children -- these are not evils to which man is subject by the laws of nature; men undergo them through their own cowardice if they have a chance to forestall them by death and will not take it. We are very proud of our courage, so we revolted against Rome. Pity the young whose bodies ware strong enough to survive prolonged torture; pity the not-so-young whose old frames would break under such ill-usage. Come! While our hands are free and can hold a sword, let them do a noble service! Let us die unenslaved by our enemies, and leave this world as free men in company with our wives and children." 18

The courageous spirit of the Zealots is evident in devout believers even in modern times. Followers of the Jewish faith have a long history of persecution and oppression. Many have been forced to relocate in other lands (including America), and millions have died for the sake of their religion. 19

IV. Issues and Controversies

Some scholars disagree with the common assumptions made concerning the Masada religious movement. Problems with accuracy arise because of a lack of resources; Josephus's manuscript, The Jewish War , is the only known record of the events. Also, he received his information second- hand from the seven survivors (two women and five children) of the movement. Many question how these seven could know details such as the orations of ben Ya'ir if they were in hiding from the group.

Josephus Flavius was a devout Jew who commanded forces in the Great Revolt of 66 C.E. Despite his leadership skills and repute among the Jewish rebels, Josephus was defeated in battle and began siding with the Romans. Thus, his account of the Jewish War may quite possibly be tainted. 20

Almost two thousand years after the fall of Masada, an extensive archaeological dig took place. The expedition was headed by Professor Yigael Yadin, who was involved with the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Israel Exploration Society, and the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums (otherwise known as the Israel Antiquities Authority). 21 Yadin identified several key discrepancies between discovered remains and the story of Josephus:

1) According to Josephus, the suicides all occurred in the palace. However, Herod's main palace is not large enough to hold the nearly one thousand people who lived and died at the Masada fortress. 22

2) Twenty-five skeletons were found isolated in a cave in the south. Josephus says these must have been put there by the Romans; but why would they hide only twenty-five when they could easily have thrown all 960 corpses over the steep cliff? Critics believe these twenty-five Jews hid from the Romans (avoiding the common suicide plot) and were found and killed, or perhaps committed suicide as they were found. 23

3) It is highly unlikely that the Romans would retreat and wait until morning to enter Masada when they had finally broken through the walls after laying seige for 2-3 years. Josephus implies that the Romans noticed nothing unusual (such as burning buildings or the eerie silence of a thousand rebels) and expected a battle the next morning. Almost all historians agree that, while Josephus's account of the breaking of Masada's walls is probably accurate, at this point his story loses credibility. 24

Thus, some believe that the mass suicide so symbolic in Judaism was in fact a Roman massacre. However, the tenets of the Sicarii at Masada and the site itself are still held in high regard. 25 Whether or not the details written about events at Masada are true or fictitious, Masada will always remain an important symbol of how Jews have historically reacted when dealing with persecution. The Jewish War 's tale of Masada is almost certainly true but exaggerated. The extent to which the truth is stretched is the main issue of controversy today.

V. Links to Masada Web Sites

The Jewish Student Online Research Center (JSOURCE)
This website gives a brief history of the Masada movement as well as a detailed description of the construction at the fortress. It includes a photograph of the site, a labeled map indicating rooms of the fortress, and information about the synagogue and artifacts.
http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Archaeology/Masada1.html

Masada: The Legend and the Truth
About.com supplies this website with links to several other informative sites. The resources include histories of the events at Masada, a biographical site on Josephus, and articles proving and disproving parts of the records. Within several pages, each detail of Josephus's account is carefully examined.
http://israeliculture.about.com/culture/israeliculture/library/weekly/aa032700f.htm>

Biblelands Project: Masada
This webpage displays amazing photographs of Masada, including storage places and caverns. It also has a section dedicated to "Thoughts" about Masada and its implications for believers. The main page from which it branches covers a wide variety of life issues (such as evolution, witnessing, adultery, etc.), which link to historical events and Biblical passages for guidance.
http://israeliculture.about.com/culture/israeliculture/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http ://www.mustardseed.net/html/pmasadad.html

PBS Online Database: Masada
PBS Online displays an extensive article about "The Credibility of Josephus." This article uses archaeological evidence as well as traditions of Jewish faith in an attempt to prove and disprove parts of Josephus's account of the events at Masada. Whether or not viewers agree or disagree with the author's conclusions, the arguments presented are well organized and very informative.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/portrait/masada.html

Excerpts from Ben-Yair's Oration at Masada
This website is dedicated to the speeches of Eleazar ben Ya'ir as recorded by Josephus in The Jewish War . Its contents are also displayed above in the Beliefs section of this New Religious Movements profile page.
http://www.sysint.com/daas/masada.htm

Archaeology in Israel: Masada
Found within the archives of the Jewish Magazine webpage, this webpage provides pleasant imaging and several photographs of Masada. Its creator, Jacqueline Schaalje, provides information about Herod's influence on Masada, as well as the natural geographic advantages and disadvantages of its location. The author summarizes archaeological finds at the site and theorizes as to their religious implications about the movement at Masada.
http://www.jewishmag.com/26mag/masada/masada.htm

Masada (a Mosaic Page)
This webpage provides a brief history, photographs, and a geographic description of Masada. One helpful and unique aspect of this resource is its glossary (complete with links) to give concise definitions to unfamiliar terms regarding Masada or its surrounding history.
http://mosaic.lk.net/g-masada.html

Masada: To Live or to Die
The question "Did these Jews flee to Masada in order to die on their own terms or to attempt to live, thereby continuing the Jewish people?" is the focus of this webpage. The page is under construction, but does provide a link to its creator for questions or comments.
http://www.jtsa.edu/users/brsolm/israelink/masada.html

VI. Bibliography

Cantor, Norman, ed. 1996.

The Jewish Experience. New York: HarperCollinsPublishers.

"From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians." PBS Video, April 6, 1998.

by Marilyn Mellowes; Dir. William Cran.

Gerber, Jane. 1990.

"Masada," The World Book Encyclopedia. Volume 13. Chicago: World Book, Inc.

Goldberg, David J., and John D. Rayner. 1987.

The Jewish People: Their History and Their Religion. New York: Penguin Books USA, Inc.

McCollister, John. 1983.

The Christian Book of Why. Middle Village, New York: Jonathan David Publishers, Inc.

Parker, T. Valentine. 1956.

American Protestantism. New York: Philosophical Library, Inc.

Wasserstein, Abraham, ed. 1974.

Flavius Josephus: Selections from his Works. New York: The Viking Press.

Yadin, Yigael and Gerald Gottlieb. 1969.

The Story of Masada. New York: Random House, Inc.

"Zealots." Microsoft(R) Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

(c)1993-1997 Microsoft Corporation.