|
|
Authors
and Contributors this page:
T.F.
Mills |
|
|
Page
created 1 September 2000. Corrected and updated
06.12.2005
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The
"Eastern Question" began to emerge after the Napoleonic
wars as a European balance of power problem revolving around the
fate of the weakening Ottoman Empire. Following its victory over
the Ottoman Empire in 1829 when it took the mouth of the Danube
and the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Russia continued to seek
warm water ports with access to the big seas, eyeing especially
access to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus. Russia also continued
expanding into the Caucasus and toward Persia. Britain was concerned
about these possible threats to its own possessions and communications
with the East. France entered the equation with the rise to power
in 1848 of Louis Napoleon who sought to consolidate his position
and increase national prestige by declaring the Second Empire in
1852.
The
catalyst for war was a growing dispute from 1840s over the religious
custody of Christian Holy Places in Palestine. Catholic monks under
French protection had tended the Jerusalem and Bethlehem holy places
since the sixteenth century, and this had been guaranteed in perpetuity
by the Ottoman capitulations of 1740. These privileges, as well
as French pilgrimages, lapsed during the turbulent anticlerical
French revolutionary and Napoleonic
era. Louis Napoleon, seeing the possibilities for political
influence, sought reinstatement of the capitulations in 1852, and,
after his coronation as Emperor, his concern about religion in the
East became a rallying cry for French Catholics. The Sultan supported
French claims of jurisdiction. Tsar Nikolai I objected that Russia
was the true defender of Christianity in the East, that such a protectorate
existed by the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (1774), and that Greek
Orthodox were by far the majority Christians (ten million) in the
East. The dispute broke into violence in Jerusalem between Catholic
and Orthodox monks, and the Muslim governor intervened in 1847 to
prevent Christian killing Christian. More importantly, French imperial
intrigues revived Russian proposals for dividing the Ottoman empire.
The tsar secretly sounded out the British about dismembering the
Ottoman empire, but the British, continuing Palmerston's policy
of containing Russia, indicated they would do all they could to
keep the dying empire alive.
In
March 1853 Russia issued an ultimatum that amounted to a demand
for Ottoman unconditional surrender: recognition of exclusive Orthodox
Christian rights in the Holy Land, Russian protection of those rights,
restrictions on other Christians who might interfere with Russian
influence, and a new secret alliance to "protect" the
Ottoman Empire from the French. The Sultan refused. In July Russia
invaded the Ottoman Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.
For five months the Turks held the upper hand, encouraged by a British
and French naval show of force around the Dardanelles. When in November
the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet off Sinope,
Britain and France were alarmed and sent an expedition to the East
to protect the Ottoman Empire from Russian aggression. The eventual
main object was a punitive strike to destroy the Black Sea Fleet
and its Crimean base at Sebastopol. In other theatres, the Turks
fought Russian advances in Armenia, and the British and French sent
fleets into the Baltic. There were also minor naval engagements
in the White Sea and the north Pacific.
|
|
|
|
|
|
Chronology
(except battles, which see below)
|
|
|
|
|
|
1829 |
Russo-Ottoman
war resulted in Russian territorial gains |
|
1853.03.02 |
Prince
Menshikov arrived in Constantinople with a Russian ultimatum |
|
1853.05.31 |
Russia
broke off relations with the Ottoman Empire after the Sultan refused
their demands |
|
1853.06.08 |
a
British fleet approached the Dardanelles as a show of force in support
of the Turks |
|
1853.07.02 |
Russian army invaded Moldavia and Wallachia |
|
1853.10.05 |
Ottoman
Empire declared war on Russia |
|
1853.10.28 |
a
Turkish army crossed the Danube River at Kalafat |
|
1853.10.30 |
the
British fleet entered the Bosporus |
|
1853.11.04 |
the
Turks defeated the Russians at Oltenitza, and later at Citate (5 Jan.
1855) |
|
1853.11.30 |
Russian
Black Sea fleet destroyed Turkish naval squadron at Sinope; Britain
and France decided to take retaliatory action |
|
1854.01.04 |
Allied fleets entered the Black Sea |
|
1854.01.08 |
the
Russians invaded the Dobruja (Romania) |
|
1854.02.10 |
a
British peace deputation visited the tsar |
|
1854.02.23 |
first
British troops set sail for the East |
|
1854.03.11 |
British
Baltic Fleet sailed from Spithead |
|
1854.03.19 |
French
troops set sail for the East |
|
1854.0320 |
French
Baltic Fleet sailed |
|
1854.03.28 |
France and Great Britain declared war on Russia
after the latter refused ultimatum to withdraw from the Principalities |
|
1854.04.05 |
British
troops arrived at Gallipoli |
|
1854.04.14 |
Russians
besieged Silistra (Bulgaria) |
|
1854.04.18 |
Turks
defeated Russians at Rohova (Romania) |
|
1854.04.20 |
Austria
and Prussia declared their neutrality |
|
1854.06.23 |
the
Russians abandoned the siege of Silistra when Austria threatened to
come to the aid of the Turks, and withdrew from Bulgaria; this could
have ended the war except that the British and French had entered
the theatre |
|
1854.05.28 |
Allied
force embarked at Gallipoli for Varna (Bulgaria) |
|
1854.05.31 |
Allies
begin landing at Varna to defend Turkish Balkans, but Russians withdrew |
|
1854.06.26 |
French
and British fleets arrived off of Kronstadt, near St. Petersburg in
the Baltic |
|
1854.06.28 |
the
British and French governments decided to destroy the Russian naval
base of Sebastopol in the Crimea |
|
1854.07.07 |
the
Turks defeated the Russians at Giurgevo (Romania) |
|
1854.07.28 |
the
Turks defeated the Russians at Bayezid (Armenia) |
|
1854.08.21 |
British
squadron bombarded Kola in the White Sea |
|
1854.09.05 |
Allied
force embarked at Varna (Bulgaria) for the Crimea |
|
1854.09.14 |
Allied
forces landed unopposed in the Crimea (Kalamata Bay, north
of Sevastopol) |
|
1854.09.19 |
Allied
forces first encountered Russians (at the River Bulganek) and the
battle for Sebastopol began (Russians scuttled the fleet to
block harbour entrance on 23 Sep., and the first allied bombardment
began 17 Oct.) |
|
1855.01.26 |
Kingdom
of Piedmont (Sardinia) joined the Allies |
|
1855.01.31 |
Lord
Aberdeen's government fell |
|
1855.02.05 |
Lord
Palmerston formed a new government. |
|
1855.03.02 |
tsar
Nikolai I died, succeeded by Aleksandr II; Menshikov recalled |
|
1855.03.15 |
peace
Conference of Vienna opened |
|
1855.04.26 |
Vienna
conference ended with no diplomatic progress |
|
1855.06.16 |
first
Russian attack on Kars (Armenia) |
|
1855.09.09 |
after
a year-long siege, the Russians evacuated Sebastopol |
|
1855.09.29 |
Turkish
troops withdrawn from Crimea and embarked for Armenia |
|
1855.10.03 |
Turkish
expedition to relieve Kars landed at Suchum Kaleh, south of the Caucasus
Mountains |
|
1855.10.07 |
Anglo-French
Kinburn expedition sailed from the Crimea for the mouth of the Dnieper
River |
|
1855.10.22 |
second
Turkish force landed at Trebizond and marched to Erzerum (Armenia)
|
|
1855.11.06 |
the
Turks defeated the Russians at the River Ingur, south of the Caucasus
Mountains |
|
1855.11.25 |
Kars
(Armenia) capitulated to Russians and Turks withdrew from the
River Skeniscal |
|
1855.12.16 |
Count
Esterhazy delivered an Austrian ultimatum to St. Petersburg |
|
1855.12.23 |
the
British began destruction of naval and military installations at Sebastopol |
|
1856.01.16 |
tsar
Alexander II accepted the Austrian demands |
|
1856.02.25 |
Paris
Peace Conference opened |
|
1856.02.29 |
Armistice
signed |
|
1856.03.30 |
Treaty
of Paris signed |
|
1856.04.27 |
Britain
ratified the Treaty of Paris |
|
1856.07.12 |
last
British troops left the Crimea |
|
1871 |
Russia
abrogated Treaty of Paris |
|
1878 |
Russo-Ottoman
war further weakened Turkey |
|
1878 |
British
defensive treaty with Ottoman empire secured right to occupy and administer
Cyprus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
After a year-long siege, Britain
captured the Russian naval base of Sebastopol and proceeded to destroy
all its naval and military installations in December 1855 while
preparing for a spring offensive. But the war had already exhausted
the Allies, and both sides accepted an Austrian-mediated armistice.
The subsequent Treaty of Paris did much to set back Russian expansionism
by almost a hundred years, but Aleksandr I viewed this as a temporary
reversal and a "blot on his reign". Britain, France and
Austria guaranteed the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, but a degree
of autonomy was granted to Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia. The Black
Sea and Bosporus Straits became a demilitarised zone with warships
and naval arsenals on its shores denied.
Tsar Aleksandr saw his first opportunity
when in 1870 France was incapacitated by its war with Prussia. Chancellor
Bismarck suggested a diplomatic compromise, and in 1871 the signatories
of the 1856 treaty lifted the restrictions and allowed Russia to
fortify Sebastopol and rebuild its Black Sea Fleet. The western
powers did not foresee the disastrous results. Fomenting pan-Slavic
insurrection in the Balkans in order to extend tsarist influence,
Russia ignored British appeals for moderation and claimed that its
own security was threatened. With the Turks on the verge of regaining
control of its erstwhile Balkan provinces and tales of Turkish atrocities
abounding, Russia mobilised 650,000 men and invaded Romania and
Bulgaria in 1877, while simultaneously advancing once again against
Kars in the east. The Ottoman empire was decisively beaten, and
by the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, it recognised the independence
or autonomy of Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Romania.
Britain, feeling once again threatened
by the altered status of the Straits and Russian designs on the
Mediterranean, concluded a defensive treaty with the Ottoman Empire
which included the right to occupy and administer Cyprus.
Taking on the role of "honest broker", Bismarck convened
the Congress of Berlin in 1878 to peacefully revise the Treaty of
San Stefano with a view to restoring the balance of power. Russia
returned few territorial gains to the Ottoman empire, but some were
divided between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Romania, Serbia, and
Montenegro remained independent with additional territory. Greater
Bulgaria was cut off from the Aegean and reduced to an Ottoman principality.
Russia restored parts of Armenia, but retained Kars and other cities.
The treaty also reconfirmed the demilitarisation of the Bosporus
Straits.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
peak forces
|
total forces
|
total dead
|
KIA-
DOW
|
NCD
|
civilian dead
|
WIA
|
PW-MIA
|
|
Britain |
|
97,864 |
22,182 |
4,602c |
17,580 |
|
18,280 |
|
|
France |
|
309,268 |
95,615 |
20,240 |
73,375 |
|
39,870 |
|
|
Ottoman
Emp. |
|
165,000 |
45,400 |
20,900 |
24,500 |
|
|
|
|
Piedmont |
|
21,000 |
2,194 |
28 |
2,166 |
|
|
|
|
subtotal |
|
593,132 |
165,391 |
45,770 |
117,621 |
|
|
|
|
Russia
|
|
888,000a |
450,015b |
73,125 |
377,000 |
|
|
|
|
TOTAL |
|
1,481,132 |
615,378 |
118,895 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a. total mobilised; total serving on war fronts was 324,478
b. includes deaths in all Russia without reaching a war front
c. twenty percent were "friendly fire" deaths
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Britain and Allies: |
|
|
|
Gen. Fitzroy James Henry (Somerset), 1st Baron Raglan |
commander-in-chief, British expeditionary
force |
d. 1855.06.28 |
|
Sir James Simpson |
commander-in-chief, British expeditionary
force |
1855.07.01-1855.11.11 |
|
Lt-Gen. Sir William John Codrington |
commander-in-chief, British expeditionary
force |
1855.11.11- |
|
Brig-Gen. William Fenwick Williams |
commander Kars garrison [no British forces] |
|
|
Vice Adm. Sir James Dundas |
commander, British Black Sea fleet |
1854-1854.12.22 |
|
Sir Edmund Lyons |
commander, British Black Sea fleet |
1854.12.22- |
|
Adm. Sir Charles Napier |
commander, British Baltic fleet |
|
|
Maréchal Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud |
Commandant du corps expéditionnaire d'Orient
|
d. 1854.09.29 |
|
Gén. François Canrobert |
Commandant du corps expéditionnaire d'Orient
|
1854.09.29-1855.05.16 |
|
Gén. Aimable-Jean-Jacques Pélissier |
Commandant du corps expéditionnaire d'Orient
|
1855.05.16- |
|
Gén. Achille Baraguay d'Hilliers |
commander in Baltic |
|
|
Hamelin |
commander, French Black Sea fleet |
1854-1854.12.24 |
|
Brout |
commander, French Black Sea fleet |
1854.12.24- |
|
Omar Pasha |
supreme commander, Ottoman armies |
|
|
Mussa Pasha |
commander Silistria garrison |
|
|
Selim Pasha |
|
|
|
Gen. Alfonso Ferrero della Marmora |
commander, Piedmont forces |
|
|
|
|
Russia: |
|
|
|
Gen. Adjutant Prince Aleksandr Sergeievich Menshikov
|
commander-in-chief Black Sea fleet and
Crimea garrison |
1854-1855.03 |
|
Gen. Prince Mikhail Gorchakov |
commander-in-chief Black Sea fleet and
Crimea garrison |
1855.03- |
|
Adm. Kornilov |
commander, Black Sea fleet & Sebastopol |
|
|
Marshal Ivan Pakevich |
commander in Balkans |
|
|
Gen. Muraviev |
commander in Armenia |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Date |
Battles
(Battle Honours are shown in bold
face) |
Regiments
(regiments awarded Battle Honours are shown in
bold face) |
Note: all Battle Honours were
awarded in 1856.
|
|
signifies clasp to campaign
medal. |
|
Western Crimea |
1854
Sep. 19 |
Bulganek
River |
|
|
1854
Sep. 20 |
Alma |
|
|
|
|
|
1854
Oct. 25 |
Balaklava |
|
|
|
|
|
1854
Nov. 5 |
Inkerman |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sevastopol
|
1855
June 8 |
Mamelon |
|
|
1855
June 8 |
Quarries |
|
|
1855
June 17 |
Malakov
Tower |
|
|
1855
June 18-
1855 Sep. 8 |
The
Redan |
|
|
1854
Sep. 19-
1855 Sep. 8 |
Sevastopol |
|
clasp: Sebastopol |
|
|
|
|
|
1855
Jan. 17 |
Eupatoria |
|
|
1855
Aug. 16 |
Tchernaya
River |
|
Cav: DG6
D1 D2
|
(also French and
Piedmont forces) |
|
|
1855
Oct. 15 |
Eupatoria |
|
|
Eastern Crimea
& Other Black Sea Ports |
1855
May 25-
1855 June 17 |
Kertsch & Yenikale |
|
|
1855
May 25-
1855 Sep. 22 |
Azoff |
|
|
|
|
Inf: RM |
|
|
1855
Sep. 22 |
Kertsch |
|
|
1855
Oct. 7-17 |
Kinburn |
|
|
Mediterranean |
1854-1855 |
Mediterranean
awarded to Militia battalions for garrison
duty; rescinded in 1908 |
|
|
Baltic |
1854
|
Hango
Head |
|
|
1854
|
Kronstadt |
|
|
1854
Aug. 13-16 |
Bomarsund
(Åland Islands) |
|
|
1855
Aug. 9-13 |
Sveaborg
|
|
|
1855
|
Helsingfors
(aka: Helsinki) |
|
|
Armenia |
1855
June 16-
1855 Nov. 25 |
Kars |
|
a few British officers |
also Ottoman forces |
|
|
Kamchatcka |
1854
Aug. 30 |
Petropavlovsk |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Societies,
Forums & Re-Enactors
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- General History
- Crimean
War 1853-56, by Ralph Zuljan (OnWar.Com)
- Introduction
to the Crimean War (Encyclopaedia Britannica, ed.
11, 1910)
- The
Crimean War, by David Cody (Victorian Web)
- The
Crimean War 1854-1856, by Alex Chirnside
- The
Crimean War, 1853-1856, by Alexander Ganse (World History
at KMLA).
- Der
Krimkrieg 1853-1856, by Marcus A. König (Kriege
der Neuzeit)
- Military Operations
of the Crimean War, by Michael Hargreave Mawson.
- Crimean
War, by Discriminating General.
- The
Crimean War, a Potted History, by Norry Hughs.
- Crimean
War, by John Barham
- Crimean
War, by Yuriy
- Crimean
War, by Donal Rivera.
-
Documents of the Crimean War, (Documents in Military History,
by Hillsdale College).
- Crimean Texts,
by David Kelsey.
- Chronology
- Research Collections and Guides
- Web Catalogues
|
|
|
|
|
|
|