History
There is a long-held assumption that independent record labels only emerged in the wake of the late 1970s punk movement. While that is a noble concept (`independent' certainly went hand-in-hand with punk's Do-It-Yourself ethos), the reality is somewhat more widespread. In the USA, for example, all manner of self-financed independent labels had been issuing blues, R&B; and country records since the 1920s.

Likewise in Australia, country artists have been issuing and distributing their own records for decades. With the dawning of the rock'n'roll era in the late 1950s, the major record companies lacked an understanding of the emergent form, and were ill-equipped initially to deal with the youth culture phenomenon. Since that time, independent labels have continued to spring up as a viable alternative to the major record companies. These days, the majors comprise EMI, BMG (formerly RCA), PolyGram, Sony Music (CBS, Epic) and Warner Music (formerly WEA). Australia's own label Festival was formed in 1952 and became a major player as manufacturer and distributor for many important labels right up to the early 1990s.

As the term implies, independent labels existed outside the mainstream music industry, thereby creating an outlet for the bands and artists that the majors considered inappropriate to their focus, commercially unviable or that they simply had no knowledge of how to market and promote. Locally, some of the first independent rock'n'roll labels included Prestophone, Leedon, Crest, Planet (run by Bob King Crawford) and Rex. Leedon and Rex were distributed by Festival, and were later absorbed whole into that company's business affairs. American Lee Gordon set up Leedon in order to issue overseas records, and to facilitate local releases by artists like Johnny O'Keefe, The Crescents, Lonnie Lee, Warren Williams and The Delltones. Often considered to be the `midwife' of Australian rock'n'roll, Gordon cut an imposing figure in his role as label manager, tour promoter and all-round music entrepreneur.

During the early 1960s, Melbourne label W&G; began issuing records by instrumental groups such as The Thunderbirds, The Phantoms, The Saxons and The Breakaways, plus rock'n'roller Johnny Chester and folkies The Seekers. With the advent of Beatlemania and the explosion of the beat boom, independent labels like Sunshine, Kommotion, Go!!, In, Spin, Orbit, Scope, Clarion, Astor, Ramrod, Mojo and Linda Lee satisfied the demand for local product by the likes of Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, Bobby and Laurie, M.P.D. Limited, The Loved Ones, Normie Rowe, Ronnie Burns, Johnny Young and countless others.

With the arrival of the progressive rock era circa 1969–70, new independent labels came to the fore. The 1970 `radio ban', in which major label records by local and overseas artists were denied airplay, left a gap for small, enterprising local labels to act quickly and get their records played. Labels like Havoc, Rebel, Fable, Du Monde, Caesar's International, Violet's Holiday, Air, Generation, Sparmac, Raven, Nationwide, Edition One, M7, Banner and Chart sprang up to fill the vacuum. Havoc went on to have great success with Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs and Coloured Balls. Other labels like Sweet Peach, Bootleg, Image, Wizard and Warm & Genuine also grabbed a corner of the market.

Two of the most successful independent labels throughout the 1970s were Mushroom and Albert. Set up in 1972 by impresario Michael Gudinski, Mushroom caught the mood of the times by issuing records by Chain, The Dingoes, Madder Lake and Skyhooks. Skyhooks were the most successful band of the 1970s. The band's debut album, Living in the 70s, sold an unprecedented 226000 copies (it eventually reached the 375000 mark), thereby launch- ing Mushroom as a premier league player in the record company game. Mushroom dominated the Australian industry right into the 1990s, having nurtured the careers of bands such as Split Enz and Models, and solo artists like Jason Donovan and Kylie Minogue.

One of Mushroom's earliest coups was to ensure major distribution through Festival, and many would argue that the label quickly outgrew its independent status. All the same, the Mushroom subsidiary label White (set up in 1981) was one of the first of its kind to focus on (then) `alternative' bands such as Hunters & Collectors, Machinations and Sacred Cowboys. Likewise, Albert had distribution through EMI. Albert Productions had been in operation since the 1960s, churning out hits for Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, The Easybeats, John Paul Young, Stevie Wright and William Shakespeare. Albert's greatest contribution was to immortalise Aussie pub rock via the streetwise swagger of AC/DC and Rose Tattoo

Just prior to the advent of punk, independent labels like Clear Light of Jupiter, Real/Electric, Champagne, Rainbird, Oz, Eagle, Living Sound, Laser and Eureka were catering to eclectic tastes. The punk/new wave explosion of 1976–77 has been described as the `big bang' of the independent universe. Almost overnight, bands began issuing and distributing their own limited edition singles, sometimes with homemade production values and picture sleeves to match. The Saints and Radio Birdman kicked the Australian new wave movement off with a shower of teenage sweat and pure adrenalin. The Saints issued their howling, milestone debut single `(I'm) Stranded' on their own Fatal Records imprint (October 1976). The record scored a glowing review in UK music paper Sounds, which led to EMI signing the band.

Likewise, Radio Birdman set up the Trafalgar label to issue its mail order 7-inch EP Burn My Eye and debut album Radios Appear. Later on, WEA stepped in with a distribution deal for the album, but Birdman remained fiercely independent and openly cautious of major label concerns. Like many pioneers, The Saints and Radio Birdman set up their own labels simply because the major labels were just not interested in the kind of music those bands created. As the late 1970s rolled on, independent labels proliferated. Often set up and driven by enthusiasts who knew the value of the music that the major labels rejected outright, these labels operated out of small backrooms, working within shoestring budgets, with low margins but boundless enthusiasm all the same. Quite often the people who ran the labels, and the bands involved, also packaged and distributed the records themselves (i.e. took them around to the record shops that stocked independent releases).

Melbourne had Keith Glass's Missing Link (also a record shop), Bruce Milne's Au-go-go, Zak, Reverse, Innocent, Mambo, Unforgettable and Cleopatra; Sydney had Remand, Powderworks, Wallaby Beat, Point Blank, Doublethink, Lost, Regular, Deluxe, Larrikin, Lost in Space, Prince Melon, Local, M-Squared, Axle, Terse and Result; Brisbane had The Go-Betweens' Able label (with its cute motto `If it's Ready, it's Able') and Savage/Shake; Perth had Bicton, D.N.A. and White Rider; Adelaide had Tomorrow.

The 1980s saw the fullest flowering of the Australian independent movement. Often records on these independent labels sold more than major label releases, but still the mainstream industry refused to take any notice. As well as Missing Link and Au-go-go in particular, some of the independent labels taking Australian music to the world included Phantom, GREEN, Waterfront, Citadel, Greasy Pop, Survival, Red Eye, Method, Sundown, Hot, True Tone, Aberrant, Grown Up Wrong/Dog Meat, Doc, Rampant, Reactor, Mr Spaceman, Polyester, Chase, Timberyard, Volition, Summershine and sundry others. Many of these labels operated right throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s. In some cases (Citadel, Greasy Pop, Red Eye, True Tone and Waterfront), the only way for them to survive was to establish distribution through a major label.

Several events occurred during the late 1980s/ early 1990s which facilitated the further growth of the independent ethos. The rooArt label (with distribution through PolyGram initially) made an assault on the mainstream charts with bands like Ratcat and The Hummingbirds. In Melbourne, three shrewd entrepreneurs (David Williams, Andrew McGee and Frank Falvo, all of whom had a grounding in independent music retailing) set up the Shock Records label, distribution service and export arm. Shock provided a viable and lucrative alternative to major label distribution and, by focusing on local and overseas independent labels, began to show the majors how it should be done. Shock's market share eventually outstripped that of a number of the major labels. The majors had to sit up and take notice.

In the USA, labels such as SubPop, SST and Slash had already openly challenged the majors. Then staunchly independent bands such as Nirvana, Hüsker Dü, Soundgarden, Sonic Youth and Soul Asylum began to sign deals with major labels. In Australia, the likes of Sony, PolyGram and Mushroom set up their own development labels such as Murmur, Id and Bark. These sub-labels were run on an independent basis while having the obvious benefits of major label infrastructure. Almost overnight, the music culture changed, and suddenly the likes of The Cruel Sea, silverchair, You Am I, Regurgitator and Spiderbait were dominating the Australian Record Industry Association (ARIA) Awards and the charts. Indeed, Murmur's first release was silverchair's `Tomorrow', which became a Top 10 mainstream hit.

The distinction between what constitutes an independent or `alternative' band and a mainstream band has now become blurred. Such labelling and categorisation have become redundant. Nevertheless, the independent ethos remains relevant as a means to an end, with names such as Aim, Bent, Corduroy, TWA, Dominator, Dr Jims, Fellaheen, Half a Cow, Newmarket, Rubber, Siren and Shock's inhouse labels like Shagpile, Concubine, Hypnotized and Thrust continuing to emerge. Sadly, as alternative became mainstream, one-time leaders in the field like Red Eye, Volition and Dogmeat shut down operations in 1996.